CFR 10-Q Quarterly Report Sept. 30, 2025

CULLEN/FROST BANKERS, INC.

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cfr-20250930

United States

Securities and Exchange Commission

Washington, D.C. 20549

Form 10-Q

☒ Quarterly Report Pursuant to Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934

For the quarterly period ended: September 30, 2025

☐ Transition Report Pursuant to Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934

For the transition period from ________________ to ________________

Commission file number: 001-13221

Cullen/Frost Bankers, Inc.

(Exact name of registrant as specified in its charter)

Texas

74-1751768

(State or other jurisdiction of incorporation or organization)

(I.R.S. Employer Identification No.)

111 W. Houston Street,

San Antonio,

Texas

78205

(Address of principal executive offices)

(Zip code)


	(210)	220-4011
(Registrant's telephone number, including area code)

N/A

(Former name, former address and former fiscal year, if changed since last report

Securities registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act:

Title of each class

Trading Symbol(s)

Name of each exchange on
which registered

Common Stock, $.01 Par Value

CFR

New York Stock Exchange

Depositary Shares, each representing a 1/40th interest in a share of 4.450% Non-Cumulative Perpetual Preferred Stock, Series B

CFR.PrB

New York Stock Exchange

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant: (1) has filed all reports required to be filed by Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to file such reports), and (2) has been subject to such filing requirements for the past 90 days. Yes ☒ No ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has submitted electronically every Interactive Data File required to be submitted pursuant to Rule 405 of Regulation S-T (§232.405 of this chapter) during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to submit such files). Yes ☒ No ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, smaller reporting company, or an emerging growth company. See the definitions of “large accelerated filer,” “accelerated filer,” “smaller reporting company,” and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.

Large accelerated filer

☒

Accelerated filer

☐

Non-accelerated filer

☐

Smaller reporting company

☐

Emerging growth company

☐

If an emerging growth company, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards provided pursuant to Section 13(a) of the Exchange Act. ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a shell company (as defined in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act). Yes ☐ No ☒

As of October 27, 2025, there were 63,941,101 shares of the registrant’s Common Stock, $ .01 par value, outstanding.

Cullen/Frost Bankers, Inc.

Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q

September 30, 2025

Table of Contents


		Page
Part I - Financial Information
Item 1.	Financial Statements (Unaudited)
	Consolidated Balance Sheets	3
	Consolidated Statements of Income	4
	Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss)	5
	Consolidated Statements of Changes in Shareholders’ Equity	6
	Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows	8
	Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements	9
Item 2.	Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations	40
Item 3.	Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk	65
Item 4.	Controls and Procedures	65

Part II - Other Information
Item 1.	Legal Proceedings	66
Item 1A.	Risk Factors	66
Item 2.	Unregistered Sales of Equity Securities , Use of Proceeds , and Issuer Purchases of Equity Securities	66
Item 3.	Defaults Upon Senior Securities	66
Item 4.	Mine Safety Disclosures	66
Item 5.	Other Information	66
Item 6.	Exhibits	67

Signatures		68

Table of Contents

Part I. Financial Information

Item 1. Financial Statements (Unaudited)

Cullen/Frost Bankers, Inc.

Consolidated Balance Sheets

(Dollars in thousands, except per share amounts)


	September 30, 2025		December 31, 2024
Assets:
Cash and due from banks	$	615,544	$	722,906
Interest-bearing deposits	7,315,042		9,495,777
Federal funds sold	—		5,925
Resell agreements	9,650		9,650
Total cash and cash equivalents	7,940,236		10,234,258
Securities held to maturity, net of allowance for credit losses of $ 500 at September 30, 2025 and $ 310 at December 31, 2024	3,454,732		3,533,775
Securities available for sale, at estimated fair value	16,884,684		15,043,625
Trading account securities	36,822		33,910
Loans, net of unearned discounts	21,445,574		20,754,813
Less: Allowance for credit losses on loans	( 280,221 )		( 270,151 )
Net loans	21,165,353		20,484,662
Premises and equipment, net	1,293,570		1,245,377
Accrued interest receivable and other assets	1,757,939		1,944,652
Total assets	$	52,533,336	$	52,520,259

Liabilities:
Deposits:
Non-interest-bearing demand deposits	$	14,128,256	$	14,441,820
Interest-bearing deposits	28,388,896		28,280,928
Total deposits	42,517,152		42,722,748
Federal funds purchased	31,775		21,975
Repurchase agreements	4,563,749		4,342,941
Junior subordinated deferrable interest debentures, net of unamortized issuance costs	123,227		123,184
Subordinated notes, net of unamortized issuance costs	99,765		99,648
Accrued interest payable and other liabilities	736,886		1,311,175
Total liabilities	48,072,554		48,621,671

Shareholders’ Equity:
Preferred stock, par value $ 0.01 per share; 10,000,000 shares authorized; 150,000 Series B shares ($ 1,000 liquidation preference) issued at both September 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024	145,452		145,452
Common stock, par value $ 0.01 per share; 210,000,000 shares authorized; 64,404,582 shares issued at both September 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024	644		644
Additional paid-in capital	1,088,755		1,075,572
Retained earnings	4,226,084		3,951,482
Accumulated other comprehensive income (loss), net of tax	( 924,420 )		( 1,252,004 )
Treasury stock, at cost; 604,037 shares at September 30, 2025 and 207,150 at December 31, 2024	( 75,733 )		( 22,558 )
Total shareholders’ equity	4,460,782		3,898,588
Total liabilities and shareholders’ equity	$	52,533,336	$	52,520,259

See accompanying Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements.

Table of Contents

Cullen/Frost Bankers, Inc.

Consolidated Statements of Income

(Dollars in thousands, except per share amounts)


	Three Months Ended September 30,				Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2025		2024		2025		2024
Interest income:
Loans, including fees	$	355,602	$	357,122	$	1,034,899	$	1,031,438
Securities:
Taxable	125,977		99,561		372,360		296,635
Tax-exempt	62,466		54,618		175,114		164,456
Interest-bearing deposits	75,914		96,215		224,149		294,215
Federal funds sold	33		63		170		223
Resell agreements	113		580		488		2,977
Total interest income	620,105		608,159		1,807,180		1,789,944
Interest expense:
Deposits	137,868		164,328		405,329		479,222
Federal funds purchased	324		271		806		1,262
Repurchase agreements	37,191		35,868		104,287		108,118
Junior subordinated deferrable interest debentures	1,940		2,197		5,824		6,756
Subordinated notes	1,164		1,164		3,492		3,492
Total interest expense	178,487		203,828		519,738		598,850
Net interest income	441,618		404,331		1,287,442		1,191,094
Credit loss expense	6,779		19,386		32,978		48,823
Net interest income after credit loss expense	434,839		384,945		1,254,464		1,142,271
Non-interest income:
Trust and investment management fees	44,846		41,016		131,446		121,505
Service charges on deposit accounts	31,440		27,412		89,212		78,321
Insurance commissions and fees	15,424		14,839		50,322		47,054
Interchange and card transaction fees	5,547		5,428		16,568		15,253
Other charges, commissions, and fees	14,730		13,060		42,283		38,140
Net gain (loss) on securities transactions	—		16		( 14 )		16
Other	13,660		11,936		37,114		35,985
Total non-interest income	125,647		113,707		366,931		336,274
Non-interest expense:
Salaries and wages	169,155		156,637		492,161		455,874
Employee benefits	34,465		29,060		109,448		93,832
Net occupancy	34,682		32,497		102,599		96,649
Technology, furniture, and equipment	43,479		37,766		124,169		108,712
Deposit insurance	6,328		7,238		20,102		30,345
Other	64,369		60,212		199,193		181,179
Total non-interest expense	352,478		323,410		1,047,672		966,591
Income before income taxes	208,008		175,242		573,723		511,954
Income taxes	33,628		28,741		91,418		84,264
Net income	174,380		146,501		482,305		427,690
Preferred stock dividends	1,668		1,668		5,006		5,006
Net income available to common shareholders	$	172,712	$	144,833	$	477,299	$	422,684

Earnings per common share:
Basic	$	2.67	$	2.24	$	7.36	$	6.52
Diluted	2.67		2.24		7.36		6.51

See accompanying Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements.

Table of Contents

Cullen/Frost Bankers, Inc.

Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income (Loss)

(Dollars in thousands)


	Three Months Ended September 30,				Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2025		2024		2025		2024
Net income	$	174,380	$	146,501	$	482,305	$	427,690
Other comprehensive income (loss), before tax:
Securities available for sale and transferred securities:
Change in net unrealized gain/loss during the period	273,173		498,371		414,242		257,185
Change in net unrealized gain on securities transferred to held to maturity	—		( 150 )		( 521 )		( 466 )
Reclassification adjustment for net (gains) losses included in net income	—		( 16 )		14		( 16 )
Total securities available for sale and transferred securities	273,173		498,205		413,735		256,703
Defined-benefit post-retirement benefit plans:

Reclassification adjustment for net amortization of actuarial gain/loss included in net income as a component of net periodic cost (benefit)	310		418		929		1,255
Total defined-benefit post-retirement benefit plans	310		418		929		1,255
Other comprehensive income (loss), before tax	273,483		498,623		414,664		257,958
Deferred tax expense (benefit)	57,431		104,712		87,080		54,172
Other comprehensive income (loss), net of tax	216,052		393,911		327,584		203,786
Comprehensive income (loss)	$	390,432	$	540,412	$	809,889	$	631,476

See accompanying Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements.

Table of Contents

Cullen/Frost Bankers, Inc.

Consolidated Statements of Changes in Shareholders’ Equity

(Dollars in thousands, except per share amounts)


	Preferred Stock		Common Stock		Additional Paid-In Capital		Retained Earnings		Accumulated Other Comprehensive Income (Loss), Net of Tax		Treasury Stock		Total
Three months ended:
September 30, 2025
Balance at beginning of period	$	145,452	$	644	$	1,084,485	$	4,119,886	$	( 1,140,472 )	$	( 9,685 )	$	4,200,310
Net income	—		—		—		174,380		—		—		174,380
Other comprehensive income (loss), net of tax	—		—		—		—		216,052		—		216,052
Stock option exercises/stock unit conversions ( 30,794 shares)	—		—		—		( 1,812 )		—		3,737		1,925
Stock-based compensation expense recognized in earnings	—		—		4,270		—		—		—		4,270
Purchase of treasury stock ( 549,526 shares)	—		—		—		—		—		( 69,785 )		( 69,785 )

Cash dividends – Series B preferred stock (approximately $ 11.13 per share which is equivalent to approximately $ 0.28 per depositary share)	—		—		—		( 1,668 )		—		—		( 1,668 )
Cash dividends – common stock ($ 1.00 per share)	—		—		—		( 64,702 )		—		—		( 64,702 )
Balance at end of period	$	145,452	$	644	$	1,088,755	$	4,226,084	$	( 924,420 )	$	( 75,733 )	$	4,460,782

September 30, 2024
Balance at beginning of period	$	145,452	$	644	$	1,064,070	$	3,810,008	$	( 1,309,344 )	$	( 45,025 )	$	3,665,805
Net income	—		—		—		146,501		—		—		146,501
Other comprehensive income (loss), net of tax	—		—		—		—		393,911		—		393,911
Stock option exercises/stock unit conversions ( 131,465 shares)	—		—		—		( 4,124 )		—		14,399		10,275
Stock-based compensation expense recognized in earnings	—		—		1,759		—		—		—		1,759
Purchase of treasury stock ( 188,889 shares)	—		—		—		—		—		( 20,047 )		( 20,047 )

Cash dividends – Series B preferred stock (approximately $ 11.13 per share which is equivalent to approximately $ 0.28 per depositary share)	—		—		—		( 1,668 )		—		—		( 1,668 )
Cash dividends – common stock ($ 0.95 per share)	—		—		—		( 61,330 )		—		—		( 61,330 )
Balance at end of period	$	145,452	$	644	$	1,065,829	$	3,889,387	$	( 915,433 )	$	( 50,673 )	$	4,135,206

See accompanying Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

Table of Contents

Cullen/Frost Bankers, Inc.

Consolidated Statements of Changes in Shareholders’ Equity

(Dollars in thousands, except per share amounts)


	Preferred Stock		Common Stock		Additional Paid-In Capital		Retained Earnings		Accumulated Other Comprehensive Income (Loss), Net of Tax		Treasury Stock		Total
Nine months ended:
September 30, 2025
Balance at beginning of period	$	145,452	$	644	$	1,075,572	$	3,951,482	$	( 1,252,004 )	$	( 22,558 )	$	3,898,588


Net income	—		—		—		482,305		—		—		482,305
Other comprehensive income (loss), net of tax	—		—		—		—		327,584		—		327,584
Stock option exercises/stock unit conversions ( 171,672 shares)	—		—		—		( 11,405 )		—		19,286		7,881
Stock-based compensation expense recognized in earnings	—		—		13,183		—		—		—		13,183
Purchase of treasury stock ( 568,559 shares)	—		—		—		—		—		( 72,461 )		( 72,461 )

Cash dividends – Series B preferred stock (approximately $ 33.38 per share which is equivalent to approximately $ 0.83 per depositary share)	—		—		—		( 5,006 )		—		—		( 5,006 )
Cash dividends – common stock ($ 2.95 per share)	—		—		—		( 191,292 )		—		—		( 191,292 )
Balance at end of period	$	145,452	$	644	$	1,088,755	$	4,226,084	$	( 924,420 )	$	( 75,733 )	$	4,460,782

September 30, 2024
Balance at beginning of period	$	145,452	$	644	$	1,055,809	$	3,657,688	$	( 1,119,219 )	$	( 23,927 )	$	3,716,447


Net income	—		—		—		427,690		—		—		427,690
Other comprehensive income (loss), net of tax	—		—		—		—		203,786		—		203,786
Stock option exercises/stock unit conversions ( 254,093 shares)	—		—		—		( 10,043 )		—		25,527		15,484
Stock-based compensation expense recognized in earnings	—		—		10,020		—		—		—		10,020
Purchase of treasury stock ( 508,176 shares)	—		—		—		—		—		( 52,273 )		( 52,273 )

Cash dividends – Series B preferred stock (approximately $ 33.38 per share which is equivalent to approximately $ 0.83 per depositary share)	—		—		—		( 5,006 )		—		—		( 5,006 )
Cash dividends – common stock ($ 2.79 per share)	—		—		—		( 180,942 )		—		—		( 180,942 )
Balance at end of period	$	145,452	$	644	$	1,065,829	$	3,889,387	$	( 915,433 )	$	( 50,673 )	$	4,135,206

See accompanying Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

Table of Contents

Cullen/Frost Bankers, Inc.

Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows

(Dollars in thousands)


	Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2025		2024
Operating Activities:
Net income	$	482,305	$	427,690
Adjustments to reconcile net income to net cash from operating activities:
Credit loss expense	32,978		48,823
Deferred tax expense (benefit)	3,047		( 11,165 )
Accretion of loan discounts	( 20,588 )		( 16,265 )
Securities premium amortization (discount accretion), net	28,907		35,577
Net (gain) loss on securities transactions	14		( 16 )
Depreciation and amortization	65,969		61,413
Net (gain) loss on sale/write-down of assets/foreclosed assets	( 2,294 )		( 343 )
Stock-based compensation	13,183		10,020
Net tax benefit from stock-based compensation	1,816		1,280
Earnings on life insurance policies	( 2,908 )		( 2,785 )
Net change in:
Trading account securities	( 2,336 )		( 620 )
Lease right-of-use assets	18,227		18,891
Accrued interest receivable and other assets	69,262		322,645
Accrued interest payable and other liabilities	( 594,338 )		30,085
Net cash from operating activities	93,244		925,230
Investing Activities:
Securities held to maturity:
Purchases	( 1,500 )		—
Maturities, calls and principal repayments	77,501		46,757
Securities available for sale:
Purchases	( 15,386,824 )		( 7,435,990 )
Sales	41,207		60,591
Maturities, calls and principal repayments	13,903,659		8,773,027
Proceeds from sale of loans	14,119		1,191
Net change in loans	( 712,382 )		( 1,244,886 )
Net cash paid in insurance agency asset acquisition	—		( 703 )
Benefits received on life insurance policies	1,777		1,063
Proceeds from sales of premises and equipment	44		17
Purchases of premises and equipment	( 104,136 )		( 90,129 )
Proceeds from sales of foreclosed assets	15,135		2,590
Net cash from investing activities	( 2,151,400 )		113,528
Financing Activities:
Net change in deposits	( 205,596 )		( 199,947 )
Net change in short-term borrowings	230,608		( 104,976 )
Proceeds from stock option exercises	7,881		15,484
Purchase of treasury stock	( 72,461 )		( 52,273 )
Cash dividends paid on preferred stock	( 5,006 )		( 5,006 )
Cash dividends paid on common stock	( 191,292 )		( 180,942 )
Net cash from financing activities	( 235,866 )		( 527,660 )
Net change in cash and cash equivalents	( 2,294,022 )		511,098
Cash and cash equivalents at beginning of period	10,234,258		8,687,276
Cash and cash equivalents at end of period	$	7,940,236	$	9,198,374

See accompanying Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements.

Table of Contents

Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements

(Table amounts in thousands, except for share and per share amounts)

Note 1 - Significant Accounting Policies

Nature of Operations. Cullen/Frost Bankers, Inc. (“Cullen/Frost”) is a financial holding company and a bank holding company headquartered in San Antonio, Texas that provides, through its subsidiaries, a broad array of products and services throughout numerous Texas markets. The terms “Cullen/Frost,” “the Corporation,” “we,” “us,” and “our” mean Cullen/Frost Bankers, Inc., and its subsidiaries, when appropriate. In addition to general commercial and consumer banking, other products and services offered include trust and investment management, insurance, brokerage, mutual funds, leasing, treasury management, capital markets advisory and item processing.

Basis of Presentation. The consolidated financial statements in this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q include the accounts of Cullen/Frost and all other entities in which Cullen/Frost has a controlling financial interest. All significant intercompany balances and transactions have been eliminated in consolidation. The accounting and financial reporting policies we follow conform, in all material respects, to accounting principles generally accepted in the United States and to general practices within the financial services industry.

The consolidated financial statements in this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q have not been audited by an independent registered public accounting firm, but in the opinion of management, reflect all adjustments necessary for a fair presentation of our financial position and results of operations. All such adjustments were of a normal and recurring nature. The consolidated financial statements have been prepared in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States for interim financial information and with the instructions to Form 10-Q adopted by the Securities and Exchange Commission (“SEC”). Accordingly, the financial statements do not include all of the information and footnotes required by accounting principles generally accepted in the United States for complete financial statements and should be read in conjunction with our consolidated financial statements, and notes thereto, for the year ended December 31, 2024, included in our Annual Report on Form 10-K filed with the SEC on February 6, 2025 (the “ 2024 Form 10-K ”). Operating results for the interim periods disclosed herein are not necessarily indicative of the results that may be expected for a full year or any future period.

Use of Estimates . The preparation of financial statements in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the financial statements. Actual results could differ from those estimates. The allowance for loan losses and the fair values of financial instruments and the status of contingencies are particularly subject to change.

Cash Flow Reporting . Additional cash flow information was as follows:


	Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2025		2024
Cash paid for interest	$	528,395	$	593,610
Cash paid for income taxes	93,000		96,500
Significant non-cash transactions:
Unsettled securities transactions	12,011		84,779
Loans foreclosed and transferred to other real estate owned and foreclosed assets	659		2,633

Right-of-use lease assets obtained in exchange for lessee operating lease liabilities	12,751		13,982

Accounting Changes, Reclassifications and Restatements. Certain items in prior financial statements have been reclassified to conform to the current presentation. As noted in our 2024 Form 10-K, we adopted ASU No. 2023-07, “Segment Reporting (Topic 280): Improvements to Reportable Segment Disclosures,” for our annual financial statements in 2024. ASU 2023-07 became effective for interim periods in 2025. See Note 14 - Operating Segments.

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Note 2 - Securities

Securities - Held to Maturity. A summary of the amortized cost, fair value and allowance for credit losses related to securities held to maturity as of September 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024, is presented below.


	Amortized Cost		Gross Unrealized Gains		Gross Unrealized Losses		Estimated Fair Value		Allowance for Credit Losses		Net Carrying Amount
September 30, 2025

Residential mortgage-backed securities	$	1,130,536	$	3,178	$	32,414	$	1,101,300	$	—	$	1,130,536
States and political subdivisions	2,323,196		6,012		143,089		2,186,119		( 500 )		2,322,696
Other	1,500		—		—		1,500		—		1,500
Total	$	3,455,232	$	9,190	$	175,503	$	3,288,919	$	( 500 )	$	3,454,732
December 31, 2024

Residential mortgage-backed securities	$	1,193,840	$	—	$	71,076	$	1,122,764	$	—	$	1,193,840
States and political subdivisions	2,338,745		13,954		116,414		2,236,285		( 310 )		2,338,435
Other	1,500		—		3		1,497		—		1,500
Total	$	3,534,085	$	13,954	$	187,493	$	3,360,546	$	( 310 )	$	3,533,775

All mortgage-backed securities included in the above table were issued by U.S. government agencies and corporations. The carrying value of held-to-maturity securities pledged to secure public funds, trust deposits, repurchase agreements and for other purposes, as required or permitted by law totaled $ 1.3 billion at September 30, 2025 and $ 1.4 billion December 31, 2024. Accrued interest receivable on held-to-maturity securities totaled $ 19.6 million at September 30, 2025 and $ 37.8 million at December 31, 2024, and is included in accrued interest receivable and other assets in the accompanying consolidated balance sheets.

The following table summarizes Moody's and/or Standard & Poor's bond ratings for our portfolio of held-to-maturity securities issued by States and political subdivisions and other securities as of September 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024:


	States and Political Subdivisions
	Not Guaranteed or Pre-Refunded		Guaranteed by the Texas PSF		Guaranteed by Third Party		Pre-Refunded		Total		Other Securities
September 30, 2025
Aaa/AAA	$	300,570	$	1,476,107	$	6,144	$	32,992	$	1,815,813	$	—
Aa/AA	493,804		—		13,579		—		507,383		—

Not rated	—		—		—		—		—		1,500
Total	$	794,374	$	1,476,107	$	19,723	$	32,992	$	2,323,196	$	1,500
December 31, 2024
Aaa/AAA	$	301,310	$	1,504,951	$	13,640	$	14,531	$	1,834,432	$	—
Aa/AA	498,198		—		6,115		—		504,313		—

Not rated	—		—		—		—		—		1,500
Total	$	799,508	$	1,504,951	$	19,755	$	14,531	$	2,338,745	$	1,500

The following table details activity in the allowance for credit losses on held-to-maturity securities during the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 and 2024.


	Three Months Ended September 30,				Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2025		2024		2025		2024
Beginning balance	$	310	$	310	$	310	$	310
Credit loss expense (benefit)	190		—		190		—
Ending balance	$	500	$	310	$	500	$	310

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Securities - Available for Sale. A summary of the amortized cost, fair value and allowance for credit losses related to securities available for sale as of September 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024, is presented below.


	Amortized Cost		Gross Unrealized Gains		Gross Unrealized Losses		Allowance for Credit Losses		Estimated Fair Value
September 30, 2025
U.S. Treasury	$	3,027,093	$	—	$	163,297	$	—	$	2,863,796

Residential mortgage-backed securities	9,429,282		50,520		790,426		—		8,689,376
States and political subdivisions	5,530,245		22,174		263,248		—		5,289,171
Other	42,341		—		—		—		42,341
Total	$	18,028,961	$	72,694	$	1,216,971	$	—	$	16,884,684
December 31, 2024
U.S. Treasury	$	3,692,215	$	—	$	249,895	$	—	$	3,442,320

Residential mortgage-backed securities	8,024,704		2,352		1,029,154		—		6,997,902
States and political subdivisions	4,842,060		2,493		284,329		—		4,560,224
Other	43,179		—		—		—		43,179
Total	$	16,602,158	$	4,845	$	1,563,378	$	—	$	15,043,625

All mortgage-backed securities included in the above table were issued by U.S. government agencies and corporations. At September 30, 2025, all of the securities in our available for sale municipal bond portfolio were issued by the State of Texas or political subdivisions or agencies within the State of Texas, of which approximately 72.6 % are either guaranteed by the Texas Permanent School Fund (“PSF”) or have been pre-refunded. Securities with limited marketability, such as stock in the Federal Reserve Bank and the Federal Home Loan Bank, are carried at cost and are reported as other available for sale securities in the table above. The carrying value of available-for-sale securities pledged to secure public funds, trust deposits, repurchase agreements and for other purposes, as required or permitted by law totaled $ 6.2 billion at both September 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024. Accrued interest receivable on available-for-sale securities totaled $ 84.1 million at September 30, 2025 and $ 104.9 million at December 31, 2024, respectively, and is included in accrued interest receivable and other assets in the accompanying consolidated balance sheets.

The table below summarizes, as of September 30, 2025, securities available for sale in an unrealized loss position for which an allowance for credit losses has not been recorded, aggregated by type of security and length of time in a continuous unrealized loss position.


	Less than 12 Months				More than 12 Months				Total
	Estimated Fair Value		Unrealized Losses		Estimated Fair Value		Unrealized Losses		Estimated Fair Value		Unrealized Losses
U.S. Treasury	$	—	$	—	$	2,863,796	$	163,297	$	2,863,796	$	163,297
Residential mortgage-backed securities	65,287		306		4,918,482		790,120		4,983,769		790,426
States and political subdivisions	779,485		22,470		3,086,008		240,778		3,865,493		263,248
Total	$	844,772	$	22,776	$	10,868,286	$	1,194,195	$	11,713,058	$	1,216,971

As of September 30, 2025, no allowance for credit losses has been recognized on available for sale securities in an unrealized loss position as management does not believe any of the securities are impaired due to reasons of credit quality. This is based upon our analysis of the underlying risk characteristics, including credit ratings, and other qualitative factors related to our available for sale securities and in consideration of our historical credit loss experience and internal forecasts. The issuers of these securities continue to make timely principal and interest payments under the contractual terms of the securities. Furthermore, management does not have the intent to sell any of the securities classified as available for sale in the table above and believes that it is more likely than not that we will not have to sell any such securities before a recovery of cost. The unrealized losses are due to increases in market interest rates over the yields available at the time the underlying securities were purchased. The fair value is expected to recover as the securities approach their maturity date or repricing date or if market yields for such investments decline.

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Contractual Maturities. The following table summarizes the maturity distribution schedule of securities held to maturity and securities available for sale as of September 30, 2025. Mortgage-backed securities are included in maturity categories based on their stated maturity date. Expected maturities may differ from contractual maturities because issuers may have the right to call or prepay obligations. Other securities classified as available for sale include stock in the Federal Reserve Bank and the Federal Home Loan Bank, which have no maturity date. These securities have been included in the total column only.


	Within 1 Year		1 - 5 Years		5 - 10 Years		After 10 Years		Total
Held To Maturity
Amortized Cost

Residential mortgage-backed securities	$	—	$	495,793	$	11,227	$	623,516	$	1,130,536
States and political subdivisions	13,599		28,613		78,764		2,202,220		2,323,196
Other	—		1,500		—		—		1,500
Total	$	13,599	$	525,906	$	89,991	$	2,825,736	$	3,455,232
Estimated Fair Value

Residential mortgage-backed securities	$	—	$	465,011	$	9,639	$	626,650	$	1,101,300
States and political subdivisions	13,638		29,033		77,852		2,065,596		2,186,119
Other	—		1,500		—		—		1,500
Total	$	13,638	$	495,544	$	87,491	$	2,692,246	$	3,288,919
Available For Sale
Amortized Cost
U. S. Treasury	$	948,358	$	1,687,338	$	198,329	$	193,068	$	3,027,093
Residential mortgage-backed securities	—		10,027		2,415		9,416,840		9,429,282
States and political subdivisions	76,941		343,795		745,864		4,363,645		5,530,245
Other	—		—		—		—		42,341
Total	$	1,025,299	$	2,041,160	$	946,608	$	13,973,553	$	18,028,961
Estimated Fair Value
U. S. Treasury	$	940,340	$	1,608,159	$	174,797	$	140,500	$	2,863,796
Residential mortgage-backed securities	—		10,030		2,470		8,676,876		8,689,376
States and political subdivisions	76,927		343,578		719,062		4,149,604		5,289,171
Other	—		—		—		—		42,341
Total	$	1,017,267	$	1,961,767	$	896,329	$	12,966,980	$	16,884,684

Sales of Securities. Sales of available for sale securities were as follows:


	Three Months Ended September 30,				Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2025		2024		2025		2024
Proceeds from sales	$	2,651	$	60,591	$	41,207	$	60,591
Gross realized gains	—		538		43		538
Gross realized losses	—		( 522 )		( 57 )		( 522 )
Tax (expense) benefit of securities gains/losses	—		( 3 )		3		( 3 )

Premiums and Discounts . Premium amortization and discount accretion included in interest income on securities was as follows:


	Three Months Ended September 30,				Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2025		2024		2025		2024
Premium amortization	$	( 14,220 )	$	( 16,078 )	$	( 44,311 )	$	( 50,601 )
Discount accretion	5,441		5,287		15,404		15,024
Net (premium amortization) discount accretion	$	( 8,779 )	$	( 10,791 )	$	( 28,907 )	$	( 35,577 )

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Trading Account Securities. Trading account securities, at estimated fair value, were as follows:


	September 30, 2025		December 31, 2024
U.S. Treasury	$	36,246	$	33,910
States and political subdivisions	576		—
Total	$	36,822	$	33,910

Net gains and losses on trading account securities included in other non-interest income were as follows:


	Three Months Ended September 30,				Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2025		2024		2025		2024
Net gain on sales transactions	$	1,323	$	1,250	$	4,111	$	3,632
Net mark-to-market gains (losses)	28		16		—		( 85 )
Net gain (loss) on trading account securities	$	1,351	$	1,266	$	4,111	$	3,547

Note 3 - Loans

Loans were as follows:


	September 30, 2025		December 31, 2024
Commercial and industrial	$	6,218,271	$	6,109,532
Energy:
Production	964,274		903,654
Service	241,957		203,629
Other	47,441		21,612
Total energy	1,253,672		1,128,895
Commercial real estate:
Commercial mortgages	7,369,908		7,165,220
Construction	2,104,247		2,264,076
Land	572,986		539,227
Total commercial real estate	10,047,141		9,968,523
Consumer real estate:
Home equity lines of credit	1,024,880		911,239
Home equity loans	999,086		914,738
Home improvement loans	871,492		852,536
1-4 family mortgage loans	421,640		259,456
Other	152,395		165,420
Total consumer real estate	3,469,493		3,103,389
Total real estate	13,516,634		13,071,912
Consumer and other	456,997		444,474
Total loans	$	21,445,574	$	20,754,813

Concentrations of Credit. Most of our lending activity occurs within the State of Texas, including the four largest metropolitan areas of Austin, Dallas/Ft. Worth, Houston, and San Antonio, as well as other markets. The majority of our loan portfolio consists of commercial and industrial and commercial real estate loans. As of September 30, 2025, there were no concentrations of loans related to any single industry in excess of 10 % of total loans. At that date, the largest industry concentrations were related to the energy industry, which totaled 5.8 % of total loans, and the automobile dealerships industry, which totaled 5.3 % of total loans. Unfunded commitments to extend credit and standby letters of credit issued to customers in the energy industry totaled $ 1.2 billion and $ 76.6 million, respectively, as of September 30, 2025, while unfunded commitments to extend credit and standby letters of credit issued to customers in the automobile dealership industry totaled $ 564.8 million and $ 20.0 million, respectively, as of September 30, 2025.

Foreign Loans. We have U.S. dollar denominated loans and commitments to borrowers in Mexico. The outstanding balance of these loans and the unfunded amounts available under these commitments were not significant at September 30, 2025 or December 31, 2024.

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Related Party Loans . In the ordinary course of business, we have granted loans to certain directors, executive officers, and their affiliates (collectively referred to as “related parties”). Such loans totaled $ 307.8 million at September 30, 2025 and $ 295.8 million at December 31, 2024.

Accrued Interest Receivable. Accrued interest receivable on loans totaled $ 91.8 million at September 30, 2025 and $ 86.8 million at December 31, 2024, and is included in accrued interest receivable and other assets in the accompanying consolidated balance sheets.

Federal Home Loan Bank Blanket Pledge. We have executed a blanket pledge and security agreement with the Federal Home Loan Bank (“FHLB”) under which certain qualifying loans are pledged as collateral for any outstanding borrowings under the agreement. Loans pledged under the blanket agreement totaled $ 19.3 billion at September 30, 2025 and $ 19.2 billion at December 31, 2024, though no FHLB borrowings were outstanding as of these dates.

Non-Accrual and Past Due Loans. Loans are considered past due if the required principal and interest payments have not been received as of the date such payments were due. Loans are placed on non-accrual status when, in management’s opinion, the borrower may be unable to meet payment obligations as they become due, as well as when required by regulatory provisions.

Non-accrual loans, segregated by class of loans, were as follows:


	September 30, 2025				December 31, 2024
	Total Non-Accrual		Non-Accrual with No Credit Loss Allowance		Total Non-Accrual		Non-Accrual with No Credit Loss Allowance
Commercial and industrial	$	23,264	$	11,287	$	46,004	$	8,800
Energy	3,523		1,304		4,079		1,377
Commercial real estate:
Buildings, land, and other	11,312		6,625		21,920		18,660
Construction	—		—		—		—
Consumer real estate	6,408		4,263		6,511		4,048
Consumer and other	271		190		352		—
Total	$	44,778	$	23,669	$	78,866	$	32,885

The following table presents non-accrual loans as of September 30, 2025, by class and year of origination.


	2025		2024		2023		2022		2021		Prior		Revolving Loans		Revolving Loans Converted to Term		Total
Commercial and industrial	$	387	$	1,813	$	8,344	$	5,825	$	1,334	$	2,202	$	798	$	2,561	$	23,264
Energy	—		—		—		—		—		1,304		2,219		—		3,523
Commercial real estate:
Buildings, land, and other	—		—		1,413		1,301		1,078		6,266		—		1,254		11,312
Construction	—		—		—		—		—		—		—		—		—
Consumer real estate	—		—		47		—		—		2,286		409		3,666		6,408
Consumer and other	—		185		—		—		—		—		86		—		271
Total	$	387	$	1,998	$	9,804	$	7,126	$	2,412	$	12,058	$	3,512	$	7,481	$	44,778

In the table above, loans reported as 2025 originations as of September 30, 2025 were, for the most part, first originated in years prior to 2025 but were renewed in the current year. Had non-accrual loans performed in accordance with their original contract terms, we would have recognized additional interest income, net of tax, of approximately $ 929 thousand and $ 3.6 million for the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025, respectively, and approximately $ 1.5 million and $ 4.0 million for the three and nine months ended September 30, 2024, respectively.

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An age analysis of past due loans (including both accruing and non-accruing loans), segregated by class of loans, as of September 30, 2025, was as follows:


	Loans 30-89 Days Past Due		Loans 90 or More Days Past Due		Total Past Due Loans		Current Loans		Total Loans		Accruing Loans 90 or More Days Past Due
Commercial and industrial	$	37,177	$	18,769	$	55,946	$	6,162,325	$	6,218,271	$	3,576
Energy	15,493		3,523		19,016		1,234,656		1,253,672		—
Commercial real estate:
Buildings, land, and other	48,381		7,594		55,975		7,886,919		7,942,894		399
Construction	1,693		—		1,693		2,102,554		2,104,247		—
Consumer real estate	18,644		11,244		29,888		3,439,605		3,469,493		4,951
Consumer and other	5,999		749		6,748		450,249		456,997		482
Total	$	127,387	$	41,879	$	169,266	$	21,276,308	$	21,445,574	$	9,408

Modifications to Borrowers Experiencing Financial Difficulty. From time to time, we may modify certain loans to borrowers who are experiencing financial difficulty. In some cases, these modifications may result in new loans. Loan modifications to borrowers experiencing financial difficulty may be in the form of a principal forgiveness, an interest rate reduction, an other-than-insignificant payment delay, or a term extension or a combination thereof, among other things. The period-end balance of loan modifications, segregated by type of modification, to borrowers experiencing financial difficulty during the nine months ended September 30, 2025 and 2024 are set forth in the table below, regardless of whether such modifications resulted in a new loan. There were no commitments to lend additional funds to these borrowers at September 30, 2025.


	Payment Delay		Percent of Total Class of Loans		Combination: Payment Delay and Term Extension		Percent of Total Class of Loans
September 30, 2025
Commercial and industrial	$	2,236	—	%	$	—	—	%
Commercial real estate:
Buildings, land, and other	1,772		—		—		—



	$	4,008	—		$	—	—
September 30, 2024
Commercial and industrial	$	1,823	—		$	46,925	0.8

Commercial real estate:
Buildings, land, and other	2,061		—		—		—



	$	3,884	—		$	46,925	0.2

The financial effects of the loan modifications made to borrowers experiencing financial difficulty were not significant during the nine months ended September 30, 2025 and 2024. The loan modifications reported in the table above did not significantly impact our determination of the allowance for credit losses on loans during their respective reporting periods.

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Information as of September 30, 2025 and September 30, 2024, related to loans modified (by type of modification) in the preceding twelve months, respectively, whereby the borrower was experiencing financial difficulty at the time of modification is set forth in the following table.


	September 30, 2025				September 30, 2024
	Payment Delay		Combination: Payment Delay and Term Extension		Payment Delay		Combination: Payment Delay and Term Extension
Past due in excess of 90 days or on non-accrual status at period-end:
Commercial and industrial	$	3,286	$	—	$	1,823	$	19,994

Commercial real estate:
Buildings, land, and other	1,772		—		2,061		—



	$	5,058	$	—	$	3,884	$	19,994
Charge-offs during the period:
Commercial and industrial	$	1,108	$	—	$	—	$	—

Credit Quality Indicators. As part of the on-going monitoring of the credit quality of our loan portfolio, management tracks certain credit quality indicators including trends related to (i) the weighted-average risk grade of commercial loans, (ii) the level of classified commercial loans, (iii) the delinquency status of consumer loans, (iv) non-performing loans (see details above) and (v) the general economic conditions in the State of Texas.

We utilize a risk grading matrix to assign a risk grade to each of our commercial loans. Loans are graded on a scale of 1 to 14. A description of the general characteristics of the 14 risk grades is set forth in our 2024 Form 10-K. We monitor portfolio credit quality by the weighted-average risk grade of each class of commercial loan. Individual relationship managers, under the oversight of credit administration, review updated financial information for all pass grade loans to reassess the risk grade on at least an annual basis. When a loan has a risk grade of 9, it is still considered a pass grade loan; however, it is considered to be on management’s “watch list,” where a significant risk-modifying action is anticipated in the near term. When a loan has a risk grade of 10 or higher, a special assets officer monitors the loan on an on-going basis. The following table presents weighted-average risk grades for all commercial loans, by class and year of origination/renewal, as of September 30, 2025.


	2025		2024		2023		2022		2021		Prior		Revolving Loans		Revolving Loans Converted to Term		Total		W/A Risk Grade
Commercial and industrial
Risk grades 1-8	$	1,476,360	$	694,049	$	337,966	$	296,554	$	186,254	$	414,531	$	2,288,758	$	49,452	$	5,743,924	6.06
Risk grade 9	32,263		29,658		5,769		7,180		21,712		41,117		66,257		20,733		224,689		9.00
Risk grade 10	3,577		1,691		18,410		37,808		1,486		4,998		10,145		7,375		85,490		10.00
Risk grade 11	41,865		17,132		16,271		13,943		3,405		11,921		20,591		15,776		140,904		11.00
Risk grade 12	137		1,365		7,432		3,735		1,321		2,182		228		1,917		18,317		12.00
Risk grade 13	250		448		912		2,090		13		20		570		644		4,947		13.00
	$	1,554,452	$	744,343	$	386,760	$	361,310	$	214,191	$	474,769	$	2,386,549	$	95,897	$	6,218,271	6.35
W/A risk grade	5.78		7.02		7.44		7.39		7.33		5.80		6.11		8.53		6.35
Energy
Risk grades 1-8	$	277,021	$	149,916	$	10,704	$	33,553	$	12,987	$	1,638	$	739,440	$	2,711	$	1,227,970	5.51
Risk grade 9	446		2,294		1,972		—		—		504		1,522		191		6,929		9.00
Risk grade 10	—		—		—		603		1,925		—		—		737		3,265		10.00
Risk grade 11	784		69		—		2,913		—		4		4,425		3,790		11,985		11.00
Risk grade 12	—		—		—		—		—		1,304		1,519		—		2,823		12.00
Risk grade 13	—		—		—		—		—		—		700		—		700		13.00
	$	278,251	$	152,279	$	12,676	$	37,069	$	14,912	$	3,450	$	747,606	$	7,429	$	1,253,672	5.62
W/A risk grade	5.86		6.62		7.38		7.72		4.70		9.66		5.15		9.27		5.62

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	2025		2024		2023		2022		2021		Prior		Revolving Loans		Revolving Loans Converted to Term		Total		W/A Risk Grade
Commercial real estate:
Buildings, land, other
Risk grades 1-8	$	1,051,270	$	1,274,670	$	1,174,695	$	1,310,780	$	880,861	$	1,352,456	$	200,018	$	190,344	$	7,435,094	6.97
Risk grade 9	605		14,492		20,603		34,131		33,966		38,602		500		431		143,330		9.00
Risk grade 10	2,539		11,351		37,094		69,967		44,678		9,755		3,498		—		178,882		10.00
Risk grade 11	32,830		8,621		15,125		43,997		10,317		58,550		—		4,836		174,276		11.00
Risk grade 12	—		—		1,413		1,301		856		5,544		—		963		10,077		12.00
Risk grade 13	—		—		—		—		222		722		—		291		1,235		13.00
	$	1,087,244	$	1,309,134	$	1,248,930	$	1,460,176	$	970,900	$	1,465,629	$	204,016	$	196,865	$	7,942,894	7.17
W/A risk grade	7.22		7.19		7.27		7.32		7.41		7.04		6.64		5.31		7.17
Construction
Risk grades 1-8	$	328,990	$	604,867	$	414,858	$	261,989	$	66,165	$	2,559	$	115,114	$	5,649	$	1,800,191	7.55
Risk grade 9	50,729		3,410		31,418		34,091		—		—		12,535		—		132,183		9.00
Risk grade 10	17,036		—		—		125,557		—		—		21,525		—		164,118		10.00
Risk grade 11	—		—		7,755		—		—		—		—		—		7,755		11.00
Risk grade 12	—		—		—		—		—		—		—		—		—		12.00
Risk grade 13	—		—		—		—		—		—		—		—		—		13.00
	$	396,755	$	608,277	$	454,031	$	421,637	$	66,165	$	2,559	$	149,174	$	5,649	$	2,104,247	7.84
W/A risk grade	7.47		7.61		7.89		8.53		7.10		7.93		8.09		6.00		7.84
Total commercial real estate	$	1,483,999	$	1,917,411	$	1,702,961	$	1,881,813	$	1,037,065	$	1,468,188	$	353,190	$	202,514	$	10,047,141	7.31
W/A risk grade	7.29		7.32		7.43		7.59		7.39		7.04		7.25		5.33		7.31

In the table above, certain loans are reported as 2025 originations and have risk grades of 11 or higher. These loans were, for the most part, first originated in various years prior to 2025 but were renewed in the current year.

The following tables present weighted average risk grades for all commercial loans by class as of December 31, 2024. Refer to our 2024 Form 10-K for details of these loans by year of origination/renewal.


	Commercial and Industrial			Energy			Commercial Real Estate - Buildings, Land and Other			Commercial Real Estate - Construction			Total Commercial Real Estate
	W/A Risk Grade	Loans		W/A Risk Grade	Loans		W/A Risk Grade	Loans		W/A Risk Grade	Loans		W/A Risk Grade	Loans
Risk grades 1-8	6.30	$	5,553,757	5.51	$	1,111,319	7.01	$	7,103,502	7.31	$	1,860,004	7.07	$	8,963,506
Risk grade 9	9.00	262,446		9.00	11,183		9.00	211,814		9.00	171,611		9.00	383,425
Risk grade 10	10.00	88,935		10.00	52		10.00	173,033		10.00	232,461		10.00	405,494
Risk grade 11	11.00	158,390		11.00	2,262		11.00	194,178		11.00	—		11.00	194,178
Risk grade 12	12.00	32,739		12.00	1,379		12.00	21,295		12.00	—		12.00	21,295
Risk grade 13	13.00	13,265		13.00	2,700		13.00	625		13.00	—		13.00	625
Total	6.64	$	6,109,532	5.58	$	1,128,895	7.25	$	7,704,447	7.71	$	2,264,076	7.35	$	9,968,523

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Information about the payment status of consumer loans, segregated by portfolio segment and year of origination, as of September 30, 2025, was as follows:


	2025		2024		2023		2022		2021		Prior		Revolving Loans		Revolving Loans Converted to Term		Total
Consumer real estate:
Past due 30-89 days	$	194	$	1,784	$	3,223	$	1,838	$	1,802	$	3,098	$	6,418	$	287	$	18,644
Past due 90 or more days	—		—		805		1,247		278		2,355		2,893		3,666		11,244
Total past due	194		1,784		4,028		3,085		2,080		5,453		9,311		3,953		29,888
Current loans	465,387		653,222		478,103		346,081		222,888		262,238		1,003,032		8,654		3,439,605
Total	$	465,581	$	655,006	$	482,131	$	349,166	$	224,968	$	267,691	$	1,012,343	$	12,607	$	3,469,493
Consumer and other:
Past due 30-89 days	$	2,408	$	234	$	565	$	127	$	20	$	50	$	1,811	$	784	$	5,999
Past due 90 or more days	179		56		1		—		—		—		277		236		749
Total past due	2,587		290		566		127		20		50		2,088		1,020		6,748
Current loans	54,316		21,886		13,090		5,544		1,987		2,108		327,272		24,046		450,249
Total	$	56,903	$	22,176	$	13,656	$	5,671	$	2,007	$	2,158	$	329,360	$	25,066	$	456,997

Period-end balances for revolving loans that converted to term during the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 and 2024 were as follows:


	Three Months Ended September 30,				Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2025		2024		2025		2024
Commercial and industrial	$	18,912	$	8,631	$	51,695	$	23,464
Energy	1,475		67		2,711		695
Commercial real estate:
Buildings, land and other	374		49		109,435		67,932
Construction	—		19		—		162
Consumer real estate	1,179		1,155		2,406		2,770
Consumer and other	2,433		2,818		8,228		8,415
Total	$	24,373	$	12,739	$	174,475	$	103,438

In assessing the general economic conditions in the State of Texas, management monitors and tracks the Texas Leading Index (“TLI”), which is produced by the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas. The TLI, the components of which are more fully described in our 2024 Form 10-K, totaled 125.9 at August 31, 2025 (most recent date available) and 125.3 at December 31, 2024. A higher TLI value implies more favorable economic conditions.

Allowance For Credit Losses - Loans. The allowance for credit losses on loans is a contra-asset valuation account, calculated in accordance with ASC 326, that is deducted from the amortized cost basis of loans to present the net amount expected to be collected. The amount of the allowance represents management's best estimate of current expected credit losses on loans considering available information, from internal and external sources, relevant to assessing collectibility over the loans' contractual terms, adjusted for expected prepayments when appropriate. Credit loss expense related to loans reflects the totality of actions taken on all loans for a particular period including any necessary increases or decreases in the allowance related to changes in credit loss expectations associated with specific loans or pools of loans. Portions of the allowance may be allocated for specific credits; however, the entire allowance is available for any credit that, in management’s judgment, should be charged off. While management utilizes its best judgment and information available, the ultimate appropriateness of the allowance is dependent upon a variety of factors beyond our control, including the performance of our loan portfolio, the economy, changes in interest rates and the view of the regulatory authorities toward loan classifications. Our allowance methodology is more fully described in our 2024 Form 10-K.

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The following table presents details of the allowance for credit losses on loans segregated by loan portfolio segment as of September 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024.


September 30, 2025	Commercial and Industrial		Energy		Commercial Real Estate		Consumer Real Estate		Consumer and Other		Total
Modeled expected credit losses	$	58,329	$	4,345	$	16,326	$	21,931	$	6,089	$	107,020
Q-Factor and other qualitative adjustments	33,391		3,354		123,454		767		4,611		165,577
Specific allocations	4,947		700		1,235		661		81		7,624
Total	$	96,667	$	8,399	$	141,015	$	23,359	$	10,781	$	280,221
December 31, 2024
Modeled expected credit losses	$	51,669	$	3,969	$	17,549	$	17,720	$	7,019	$	97,926
Q-Factor and other qualitative adjustments	22,635		3,323		125,031		620		3,095		154,704
Specific allocations	13,265		2,700		625		766		165		17,521
Total	$	87,569	$	9,992	$	143,205	$	19,106	$	10,279	$	270,151

The following table details activity in the allowance for credit losses on loans by portfolio segment for the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 and 2024. Allocation of a portion of the allowance to one category of loans does not preclude its availability to absorb losses in other categories.


	Commercial and Industrial		Energy		Commercial Real Estate		Consumer Real Estate		Consumer and Other		Total
Three months ended:
September 30, 2025
Beginning balance	$	95,484	$	10,389	$	140,923	$	21,707	$	9,300	$	277,803
Credit loss expense (benefit)	2,669		( 2,343 )		86		3,115		5,480		9,007
Charge-offs	( 2,742 )		—		—		( 1,849 )		( 7,022 )		( 11,613 )
Recoveries	1,256		353		6		386		3,023		5,024
Net (charge-offs) recoveries	( 1,486 )		353		6		( 1,463 )		( 3,999 )		( 6,589 )
Ending balance	$	96,667	$	8,399	$	141,015	$	23,359	$	10,781	$	280,221

September 30, 2024
Beginning balance	$	78,554	$	11,485	$	140,020	$	15,707	$	10,541	$	256,307
Credit loss expense (benefit)	4,697		146		2,791		3,838		4,990		16,462
Charge-offs	( 3,907 )		—		—		( 2,013 )		( 8,007 )		( 13,927 )
Recoveries	1,232		490		14		120		2,431		4,287
Net (charge-offs) recoveries	( 2,675 )		490		14		( 1,893 )		( 5,576 )		( 9,640 )
Ending balance	$	80,576	$	12,121	$	142,825	$	17,652	$	9,955	$	263,129



Nine months ended:
September 30, 2025
Beginning balance	$	87,569	$	9,992	$	143,205	$	19,106	$	10,279	$	270,151
Credit loss expense (benefit)	17,165		( 2,428 )		2,439		7,365		12,960		37,501
Charge-offs	( 11,241 )		( 52 )		( 4,639 )		( 4,099 )		( 21,156 )		( 41,187 )
Recoveries	3,174		887		10		987		8,698		13,756
Net (charge-offs) recoveries	( 8,067 )		835		( 4,629 )		( 3,112 )		( 12,458 )		( 27,431 )
Ending balance	$	96,667	$	8,399	$	141,015	$	23,359	$	10,781	$	280,221
September 30, 2024
Beginning balance	$	74,006	$	17,814	$	130,598	$	13,538	$	10,040	$	245,996
Credit loss expense (benefit)	13,625		( 6,668 )		12,304		7,819		16,768		43,848
Charge-offs	( 10,333 )		( 79 )		( 122 )		( 4,090 )		( 24,624 )		( 39,248 )
Recoveries	3,278		1,054		45		385		7,771		12,533
Net (charge-offs) recoveries	( 7,055 )		975		( 77 )		( 3,705 )		( 16,853 )		( 26,715 )
Ending balance	$	80,576	$	12,121	$	142,825	$	17,652	$	9,955	$	263,129

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The following table presents year-to-date gross charge-offs by year of origination as of September 30, 2025.


	2025		2024		2023		2022		2021		Prior		Revolving Loans		Revolving Loans Converted to Term		Total
Commercial and industrial	$	166	$	1,201	$	1,774	$	185	$	912	$	116	$	3,495	$	3,392	$	11,241
Energy	—		—		—		52		—		—		—		—		52
Commercial real estate:
Buildings, land and other	—		—		—		—		4,636		3		—		—		4,639
Construction	—		—		—		—		—		—		—		—		—
Consumer real estate	—		57		367		657		259		431		2,328		—		4,099
Consumer and other	13,808		4,056		532		223		1		13		1,867		656		21,156
Total	$	13,974	$	5,314	$	2,673	$	1,117	$	5,808	$	563	$	7,690	$	4,048	$	41,187

In the table above, $ 13.8 million of the consumer and other loan charge-offs reported as 2025 originations and $ 3.8 million of the total reported as 2024 originations were related to deposit overdrafts.

The following table presents loans that were evaluated for expected credit losses on an individual basis and the related specific allocations, by loan portfolio segment, as of September 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024.


	September 30, 2025				December 31, 2024
	Loan Balance		Specific Allocations		Loan Balance		Specific Allocations
Commercial and industrial	$	21,161	$	4,947	$	45,009	$	13,265
Energy	3,523		700		4,078		2,700
Commercial real estate:
Buildings, land and other	8,785		722		18,797		122
Construction	1,772		513		2,012		503
Consumer real estate	6,156		661		6,039		766
Consumer and other	81		81		352		165
Total	$	41,478	$	7,624	$	76,287	$	17,521

Note 4 - Deposits

Deposits were as follows:


	September 30, 2025		December 31, 2024
Non-interest-bearing demand deposits	$	14,128,256	$	14,441,820
Interest-bearing deposits:
Savings and interest checking	9,754,935		10,310,942
Money market accounts	11,922,794		11,568,254
Time accounts	6,711,167		6,401,732
Total interest-bearing deposits	28,388,896		28,280,928
Total deposits	$	42,517,152	$	42,722,748

The table below presents additional information about our deposits. Public funds in excess of deposit insurance limits are included in the totals for deposits not covered by insurance; however, such deposits are generally fully collateralized by securities.


	September 30, 2025		December 31, 2024

Deposits from foreign sources (primarily Mexico)	$	1,269,133	$	1,219,463
Non-interest-bearing public funds deposits	467,905		759,819
Interest-bearing public funds deposits	523,377		625,104
Total deposits not covered by deposit insurance	22,027,949		22,972,618
Time deposits not covered by deposit insurance	2,984,593		2,744,112

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Note 5 - Off-Balance-Sheet Arrangements, Commitments, Guarantees and Contingencies

Financial Instruments with Off-Balance-Sheet Risk . In the normal course of business, we enter into various transactions, which, in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles are not included in our consolidated balance sheets. We enter into these transactions to meet the financing needs of our customers. As more fully discussed in our 2024 Form 10-K, these transactions include commitments to extend credit and standby letters of credit, which involve, to varying degrees, elements of credit risk and interest rate risk in excess of the amounts recognized in the consolidated balance sheets. We minimize our exposure to loss under these commitments by subjecting them to credit approval and monitoring procedures.

Financial instruments with off-balance-sheet risk were as follows:


	September 30, 2025		December 31, 2024
Commitments to extend credit	$	12,157,818	$	12,046,520
Standby letters of credit	407,337		449,176
Deferred standby letter of credit fees	2,470		3,071

Allowance For Credit Losses - Off-Balance-Sheet Credit Exposures. The allowance for credit losses on off-balance-sheet credit exposures is a liability account, calculated in accordance with ASC 326, representing expected credit losses over the contractual period for which we are exposed to credit risk resulting from a contractual obligation to extend credit. No allowance is recognized if we have the unconditional right to cancel the obligation. Off-balance-sheet credit exposures primarily consist of amounts available under outstanding lines of credit and letters of credit detailed in the table above. The amount of the allowance represents management's best estimate of expected credit losses on commitments expected to be funded over the contractual life of the commitment. Our allowance methodology is more fully described in our 2024 Form 10-K.

The following table details activity in the allowance for credit losses on off-balance-sheet credit exposures.


	Three Months Ended September 30,				Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2025		2024		2025		2024
Beginning balance	$	49,609	$	53,802	$	51,904	$	51,751
Credit loss expense (benefit)	( 2,418 )		2,924		( 4,713 )		4,975
Ending balance	$	47,191	$	56,726	$	47,191	$	56,726

Lease Commitments . We lease certain office facilities and office equipment under operating leases. The components of total lease expense were as follows:


	Three Months Ended September 30,				Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2025		2024		2025		2024
Amortization of lease right-of-use assets	$	9,120	$	8,846	$	27,246	$	26,465
Short-term lease expense	154		300		727		1,019
Non-lease components (including taxes, insurance, common maintenance, etc.)	3,415		2,546		11,051		9,561
Total	$	12,689	$	11,692	$	39,024	$	37,045

Right-of-use lease assets totaled $ 264.8 million at September 30, 2025 and $ 270.3 million at December 31, 2024, and are reported as a component of premises and equipment on our accompanying consolidated balance sheets. The related lease liabilities totaled $ 302.1 million at September 30, 2025 and $ 308.1 million at December 31, 2024, and are reported as a component of accrued interest payable and other liabilities in the accompanying consolidated balance sheets. Lease payments under operating leases that were applied to our operating lease liability totaled $ 9.4 million and $ 27.8 million during the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025, respectively, and $ 8.3 million and $ 25.3 million during the three and nine months ended September 30, 2024, respectively. There has been no significant change in our expected future minimum lease payments since December 31, 2024. See the 2024 Form 10-K for information regarding these commitments.

Litigation. We are subject to various claims and legal actions that have arisen in the course of conducting business. Management does not expect the ultimate disposition of these matters to have a material adverse impact on our financial statements.

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Note 6 - Capital and Regulatory Matters

Banks and bank holding companies are subject to various regulatory capital requirements administered by state and federal banking agencies. Capital adequacy guidelines and, additionally for banks, prompt corrective action regulations, involve quantitative measures of assets, liabilities, and certain off-balance-sheet items calculated under regulatory accounting practices. Capital amounts and classifications are also subject to qualitative judgments by regulators about components, risk weighting and other factors.

Cullen/Frost’s and Frost Bank’s Common Equity Tier 1 capital (“CET1”) includes common stock and related paid-in capital, net of treasury stock, and retained earnings. In connection with the adoption of the Basel III Capital Rules, we elected to opt-out of the requirement to include most components of accumulated other comprehensive income in CET1. We also elected to exclude the effects of credit loss accounting under CECL from CET1 for a five-year transitional period, as further discussed in our 2024 Form 10-K. This CECL transitional adjustment totaled $ 15.4 million at December 31, 2024, after which point the transitional period ended. CET1 is reduced by goodwill and other intangible assets, net of associated deferred tax liabilities. Frost Bank's CET1 is also reduced by its equity investment in its financial subsidiary, Frost Insurance Agency (“FIA”).

Tier 1 capital includes CET1 and additional Tier 1 capital. For Cullen/Frost, additional Tier 1 capital included $ 145.5 million of 4.450 % non-cumulative perpetual preferred stock at September 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024, the details of which are further discussed below. Frost Bank did no t have any additional Tier 1 capital beyond CET1 at September 30, 2025 or December 31, 2024. Total capital includes Tier 1 capital and Tier 2 capital. Tier 2 capital for both Cullen/Frost and Frost Bank includes a permissible portion of the allowances for credit losses on securities, loans, and off-balance-sheet credit exposures. Tier 2 capital for Cullen/Frost also includes the permissible portion of qualified subordinated debt (which decreases 20.0 % per year during the final five years of the term of the notes) totaling $ 20.0 million at September 30, 2025 and $ 40.0 million at December 31, 2024, and trust preferred securities totaling $ 120.0 million at both September 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024.

The following table presents actual and required capital ratios as of September 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024, for Cullen/Frost and Frost Bank under the Basel III Capital Rules. Capital levels required to be considered well-capitalized are based upon prompt corrective action regulations, as amended to reflect the changes under the Basel III Capital Rules. See the 2024 Form 10-K for a more detailed discussion of the Basel III Capital Rules.


	Actual				Minimum Capital Required Plus Capital Conservation Buffer				Required to be Considered Well- Capitalized (1)
	Capital Amount		Ratio		Capital Amount		Ratio		Capital Amount		Ratio
September 30, 2025
Common Equity Tier 1 to Risk-Weighted Assets
Cullen/Frost	$	4,568,817	14.14	%	$	2,261,988	7.00	%	N/A		N/A
Frost Bank	4,633,566		14.35		2,260,930		7.00		$	2,099,435	6.50	%
Tier 1 Capital to Risk-Weighted Assets
Cullen/Frost	4,714,269		14.59		2,746,700		8.50		1,938,847		6.00
Frost Bank	4,633,566		14.35		2,745,415		8.50		2,583,920		8.00
Total Capital to Risk-Weighted Assets
Cullen/Frost	5,182,181		16.04		3,392,982		10.50		3,231,412		10.00
Frost Bank	4,961,478		15.36		3,391,395		10.50		3,229,900		10.00
Leverage Ratio
Cullen/Frost	4,714,269		9.00		2,096,358		4.00		N/A		N/A
Frost Bank	4,633,566		8.84		2,096,845		4.00		2,621,057		5.00

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	Actual				Minimum Capital Required Plus Capital Conservation Buffer				Required to be Considered Well- Capitalized (1)
	Capital Amount		Ratio		Capital Amount		Ratio		Capital Amount		Ratio
December 31, 2024
Common Equity Tier 1 to Risk-Weighted Assets
Cullen/Frost	$	4,343,666	13.62	%	$	2,232,822	7.00	%	N/A		N/A
Frost Bank	4,387,862		13.76		2,231,710		7.00		$	2,072,302	6.50	%
Tier 1 Capital to Risk-Weighted Assets
Cullen/Frost	4,489,118		14.07		2,711,283		8.50		1,913,847		6.00
Frost Bank	4,387,862		13.76		2,709,934		8.50		2,550,526		8.00
Total Capital to Risk-Weighted Assets
Cullen/Frost	4,954,136		15.53		3,349,232		10.50		3,189,745		10.00
Frost Bank	4,692,880		14.72		3,347,565		10.50		3,188,157		10.00
Leverage Ratio
Cullen/Frost	4,489,118		8.63		2,079,715		4.00		N/A		N/A
Frost Bank	4,387,862		8.44		2,079,965		4.00		2,599,956		5.00

____________________

(1) “Well-capitalized” minimum Common Equity Tier 1 to Risk-Weighted Assets and Leverage Ratio are not formally defined under applicable banking regulations for bank holding companies.

As of September 30, 2025, capital levels at Cullen/Frost and Frost Bank exceed all capital adequacy requirements under the Basel III Capital Rules. Based on the ratios presented above, capital levels as of September 30, 2025, at Cullen/Frost and Frost Bank exceed the minimum levels necessary to be considered “well-capitalized.”

Cullen/Frost and Frost Bank are subject to the regulatory capital requirements administered by the Federal Reserve Board and, for Frost Bank, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (“FDIC”). Regulatory authorities can initiate certain mandatory actions if Cullen/Frost or Frost Bank fail to meet the minimum capital requirements, which could have a direct material effect on our financial statements. Management believes, as of September 30, 2025, that Cullen/Frost and Frost Bank meet all capital adequacy requirements to which they are subject.

Series B Preferred Stock. Outstanding preferred stock includes 150,000 shares, or $ 150.0 million in aggregate liquidation preference, of our 4.450 % Non-Cumulative Perpetual Preferred Stock, Series B, par value $ 0.01 and liquidation preference $ 1,000 per share (“Series B Preferred Stock”). Each share of Series B Preferred Stock issued and outstanding is represented by 40 depositary shares, each representing a 1/40th ownership interest in a share of the Series B Preferred Stock (equivalent to a liquidation preference of $ 25 per share). The Series B Preferred Stock qualifies as Tier 1 capital for the purposes of the regulatory capital calculations. The net proceeds from the issuance and sale of the Series B Preferred Stock, after deducting $ 4.5 million of issuance costs including the underwriting discount and professional service fees, among other things, were approximately $ 145.5 million. Refer to our 2024 Form 10-K for additional details related to our Series B Preferred Stock.

Purchases of Equity Securities. From time to time, our board of directors has authorized stock repurchase plans. The purpose of such plans and the manner in which shares are repurchased is discussed in more detail in our 2024 Form 10-K. Most recently, on January 29, 2025, our board of directors authorized a $ 150.0 million stock repurchase program (the “2025 Repurchase Plan”), allowing us to repurchase shares of our common stock over a one -year period expiring on January 28, 2026. The 2025 Repurchase Plan was publicly announced in a current report on Form 8-K filed with the SEC on January 30, 2025.

Under the 2025 Repurchase Plan, we repurchased 549,228 shares at a total cost of $ 69.3 million (excluding applicable excise taxes) during the nine months ended September 30, 2025. We also repurchased 19,331 shares at a total cost of $ 2.7 million in connection with the vesting of certain share awards during the nine months ended September 30, 2025. Repurchases made in connection with the vesting of share awards are not associated with any publicly announced stock repurchase plan. Under a prior repurchase plan, we repurchased 489,862 shares at a total cost of $ 50.0 million (excluding applicable excise taxes) during the nine months ended September 30, 2024. We also repurchased 18,314 shares at a total cost of $ 2.1 million in connection with the vesting of certain share awards during the nine months ended September 30, 2024. Under the Basel III Capital Rules, Cullen/Frost may not repurchase or redeem any of its preferred stock or subordinated notes and, in some cases, its common stock without the prior approval of the Federal Reserve Board.

Dividend Restrictions . In the ordinary course of business, Cullen/Frost is dependent upon dividends from Frost Bank to provide funds for the payment of dividends to shareholders and to provide for other cash requirements, including to repurchase its common stock. Banking regulations may limit the amount of dividends that may be paid. Approval by regulatory authorities is required if the effect of dividends declared would cause the regulatory capital of Frost Bank to fall below specified minimum

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levels. Approval is also required if dividends declared exceed the net profits for that year combined with the retained net profits for the preceding two years. Under the foregoing dividend restrictions and while maintaining its “well-capitalized” status, at September 30, 2025, Frost Bank could pay aggregate dividends of up to $ 923.3 million to Cullen/Frost without prior regulatory approval.

Under the terms of the junior subordinated deferrable interest debentures that Cullen/Frost has issued to Cullen/Frost Capital Trust II, Cullen/Frost has the right at any time during the term of the debentures to defer the payment of interest at any time or from time to time for an extension period not exceeding 20 consecutive quarterly periods with respect to each extension period. In the event that we have elected to defer interest on the debentures, we may not, with certain exceptions, declare or pay any dividends or distributions on our capital stock or purchase or acquire any of our capital stock.

Under the terms of the Series B Preferred Stock, in the event that we do not declare and pay dividends on the Series B Preferred Stock for the most recent dividend period, we may not, with certain exceptions, declare or pay dividends on, or purchase, redeem or otherwise acquire, shares of our common stock or any of our securities that rank junior to the Series B Preferred Stock.

Note 7 - Derivative Financial Instruments

The fair value of derivative positions outstanding is included in accrued interest receivable and other assets and accrued interest payable and other liabilities in the accompanying consolidated balance sheets and in the net change in each of these financial statement line items in the accompanying consolidated statements of cash flows.

Interest Rate Derivatives. We utilize interest rate swaps, caps and floors to mitigate exposure to interest rate risk and to facilitate the needs of our customers. Our objectives for utilizing our currently outstanding derivative positions are described below:

We have entered into certain interest rate derivative contracts that are not designated as hedging instruments to accommodate the business needs of our customers. These derivative contracts relate to transactions in which we enter into an interest rate swap, cap and/or floor with a customer while at the same time entering into an offsetting interest rate swap, cap and/or floor with a third-party financial institution. In connection with each swap transaction, we agree to pay interest to the customer on a notional amount at a variable interest rate and receive interest from the customer on a similar notional amount at a fixed interest rate. At the same time, we agree to pay a third-party financial institution the same fixed interest rate on the same notional amount and receive the same variable interest rate on the same notional amount. The transaction allows our customer to effectively convert a variable rate loan to a fixed rate. Because we act as an intermediary for our customers, changes in the fair value of the underlying derivative contracts largely offset each other and do not significantly impact our results of operations.

The notional amounts and estimated fair values of interest rate derivative contracts outstanding are presented in the following table. The fair values of these contracts are estimated utilizing internal valuation methods with observable market data inputs, or as determined by the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (“CME”) for centrally cleared derivative contracts. CME rules legally characterize variation margin payments for centrally cleared derivatives as settlements of the derivatives' exposure rather than collateral. As a result, the variation margin payment and the related derivative instruments are considered a single unit of account for accounting and financial reporting purposes. Variation margin, as determined by the CME, is settled daily. As a result, derivative contracts that clear through the CME have an estimated fair value of zero .


	September 30, 2025			December 31, 2024
	Notional Amount	Estimated Fair Value		Notional Amount	Estimated Fair Value




Non-hedging interest rate derivatives:
Financial institution counterparties:
Loan/lease interest rate swaps – assets	783,231	$	35,762	1,213,519	$	63,001
Loan/lease interest rate swaps – liabilities	1,093,418	( 21,997 )		663,078	( 9,068 )
Loan/lease interest rate caps – assets	216,138	3,679		205,164	7,053
Customer counterparties:
Loan/lease interest rate swaps – assets	1,093,417	21,997		663,078	9,068
Loan/lease interest rate swaps – liabilities	783,232	( 35,762 )		1,213,519	( 63,000 )
Loan/lease interest rate caps – liabilities	216,138	( 3,680 )		205,164	( 7,054 )

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The weighted-average rates paid and received for interest rate swaps outstanding at September 30, 2025, were as follows:


	Weighted-Average
	Interest Rate Paid		Interest Rate Received
Interest rate swaps:

Non-hedging interest rate swaps – financial institution counterparties	5.14	%	6.01	%
Non-hedging interest rate swaps – customer counterparties	6.01		5.14

The weighted-average strike rate for outstanding interest rate caps was 3.80 % at September 30, 2025.

Commodity Derivatives. We enter into certain commodity derivative contracts that are not designated as hedging instruments to accommodate the business needs of our customers. Upon the origination of a commodity derivative contract with a customer, we simultaneously enter into an offsetting contract with a third-party financial institution to mitigate our exposure to fluctuations in commodity prices. Because we act as an intermediary for our customers, changes in the fair value of the underlying derivative contracts largely offset each other and do not significantly impact our results of operations.

The notional amounts and estimated fair values of non-hedging commodity derivative contracts outstanding are presented in the following table. The fair values of these contracts are estimated utilizing internal valuation methods with observable market data inputs.


		September 30, 2025			December 31, 2024
	Notional Units	Notional Amount	Estimated Fair Value		Notional Amount	Estimated Fair Value
Financial institution counterparties:
Oil – assets	Barrels	6,968	$	27,521	7,097	$	27,471
Oil – liabilities	Barrels	2,441	( 2,676 )		4,768	( 12,897 )
Natural gas – assets	MMBTUs	17,374	3,539		25,454	3,804
Natural gas – liabilities	MMBTUs	13,380	( 1,940 )		26,082	( 4,054 )
Customer counterparties:
Oil – assets	Barrels	2,468	$	3,115	4,872	12,973
Oil – liabilities	Barrels	6,940	( 26,566 )		6,993	( 26,753 )
Natural gas – assets	MMBTUs	14,000	2,048		26,767	4,255
Natural gas – liabilities	MMBTUs	16,754	( 3,263 )		24,769	( 3,600 )

Foreign Currency Derivatives . We enter into foreign currency derivative contracts that are not designated as hedging instruments to accommodate the business needs of our customers and to mitigate our exposure to foreign currency. Upon the origination of a foreign currency derivative contract with a customer, we simultaneously enter into an offsetting contract with a third-party financial institution to mitigate our exposure to fluctuations in foreign currency exchange rates. Because we act as an intermediary for our customers, changes in the fair value of the underlying derivative contracts largely offset each other and do not significantly impact our results of operations. We also utilize foreign currency derivative contracts that are not designated as hedging instruments to mitigate the economic effect of fluctuations in foreign currency exchange rates on foreign currency holdings and certain short-term, non-U.S. dollar denominated loans. The notional amounts and fair values of non-hedging foreign currency derivative contracts are presented in the following table. The fair values of these contracts are estimated utilizing internal valuation methods with observable market data inputs.


		September 30, 2025			December 31, 2024
	Notional Currency	Notional Amount	Estimated Fair Value		Notional Amount	Estimated Fair Value
Financial institution counterparties:
Forward and option contracts – assets	EUR	5,000	$	134	—	$	—




Forward and option contracts – liabilities	EUR	5,000	( 2 )		—	—




Customer counterparties:
Forward and option contracts – assets	EUR	5,000	2		—	—




Forward and option contracts – liabilities	EUR	5,000	( 134 )		—	—

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Gains, Losses and Derivative Cash Flows . For non-hedging derivative instruments, gains and losses due to changes in fair value and all cash flows are included in other non-interest income and other non-interest expense as presented in the table below.


	Three Months Ended September 30,				Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2025		2024		2025		2024
Non-hedging interest rate derivatives:
Other non-interest income	$	784	$	1,435	$	1,906	$	3,072
Other non-interest expense	( 1 )		( 1 )		( 2 )		2
Non-hedging commodity derivatives:
Other non-interest income	351		311		3,054		1,636
Non-hedging foreign currency derivatives:
Other non-interest income	—		—		55		11

Counterparty Credit Risk. At September 30, 2025, our credit exposure relating to outstanding derivative contracts with bank customers was approximately $ 22.6 million. This credit exposure is partly mitigated as transactions with customers are generally secured by the collateral, if any, securing the underlying transaction being hedged. At September 30, 2025, after consideration of collateral pledged, we had $ 4.0 million credit exposure relating to outstanding derivative contracts with upstream financial institution counterparties. Collateral positions are generally cleared on the next business day. Collateral levels for upstream financial institution counterparties are monitored and adjusted, as necessary. See Note 8 – Balance Sheet Offsetting and Repurchase Agreements for additional information regarding our credit exposure with upstream financial institution counterparties. At September 30, 2025, we had $ 12.5 million in cash collateral related to derivative contracts on deposit with other financial institution counterparties.

Note 8 - Balance Sheet Offsetting and Repurchase Agreements

Balance Sheet Offsetting. Certain financial instruments, including resell and repurchase agreements and derivatives, may be eligible for offset in the consolidated balance sheet and/or subject to master netting arrangements or similar agreements. Our derivative transactions with upstream financial institution counterparties are generally executed under International Swaps and Derivative Association (“ISDA”) master agreements which include “right of set-off” provisions. In such cases there is generally a legally enforceable right to offset recognized amounts and there may be an intention to settle such amounts on a net basis. Nonetheless, we do not generally offset such financial instruments for financial reporting purposes.

Information about financial instruments that are eligible for offset in the consolidated balance sheet as of September 30, 2025, is presented in the following tables.


	Gross Amount Recognized		Gross Amount Offset		Net Amount Recognized
September 30, 2025
Financial assets:
Derivatives:
Interest rate contracts	$	39,441	$	—	$	39,441
Commodity contracts	31,060		—		31,060
Foreign currency contracts	134		—		134
Total derivatives	70,635		—		70,635
Resell agreements	9,650		—		9,650
Total	$	80,285	$	—	$	80,285
Financial liabilities:
Derivatives:
Interest rate contracts	$	21,997	$	—	$	21,997
Commodity contracts	4,616		—		4,616
Foreign currency contracts	2		—		2
Total derivatives	26,615		—		26,615
Repurchase agreements	4,563,749		—		4,563,749
Total	$	4,590,364	$	—	$	4,590,364

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			Gross Amounts Not Offset
	Net Amount Recognized		Financial Instruments		Collateral		Net Amount
September 30, 2025
Financial assets:
Derivatives:
Counterparty H	$	29,820	$	( 2,500 )	$	( 25,250 )	$	2,070
Counterparty F	12,619		( 1,317 )		( 11,302 )		—
Counterparty B	14,270		( 960 )		( 12,930 )		380
Counterparty E	7,642		( 6,532 )		( 1,110 )		—
Other counterparties	6,284		( 3,306 )		( 2,730 )		248
Total derivatives	70,635		( 14,615 )		( 53,322 )		2,698
Resell agreements	9,650		—		( 9,650 )		—
Total	$	80,285	$	( 14,615 )	$	( 62,972 )	$	2,698
Financial liabilities:
Derivatives:
Counterparty H	$	2,500	$	( 2,500 )	$	—	$	—
Counterparty F	1,317		( 1,317 )		—		—
Counterparty B	960		( 960 )		—		—
Counterparty E	6,532		( 6,532 )		—		—
Other counterparties	15,306		( 3,306 )		( 11,214 )		786
Total derivatives	26,615		( 14,615 )		( 11,214 )		786
Repurchase agreements	4,563,749		—		( 4,563,749 )		—
Total	$	4,590,364	$	( 14,615 )	$	( 4,574,963 )	$	786

Information about financial instruments that are eligible for offset in the consolidated balance sheet as of December 31, 2024, is presented in the following tables.


	Gross Amount Recognized		Gross Amount Offset		Net Amount Recognized
December 31, 2024
Financial assets:
Derivatives:
Interest rate contracts	$	70,054	$	—	$	70,054
Commodity contracts	31,275		—		31,275

Total derivatives	101,329		—		101,329
Resell agreements	9,650		—		9,650
Total	$	110,979	$	—	$	110,979
Financial liabilities:
Derivatives:
Interest rate contracts	$	9,068	$	—	$	9,068
Commodity contracts	16,951		—		16,951

Total derivatives	26,019		—		26,019
Repurchase agreements	4,342,941		—		4,342,941
Total	$	4,368,960	$	—	$	4,368,960

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			Gross Amounts Not Offset
	Net Amount Recognized		Financial Instruments		Collateral		Net Amount
December 31, 2024
Financial assets:
Derivatives:
Counterparty H	$	36,286	$	( 10,129 )	$	( 26,157 )	$	—
Counterparty F	15,505		( 2,322 )		( 11,759 )		1,424
Counterparty B	22,338		( 4,522 )		( 17,816 )		—
Counterparty E	14,219		( 2,109 )		( 12,100 )		10
Other counterparties	12,981		( 6,632 )		( 6,325 )		24
Total derivatives	101,329		( 25,714 )		( 74,157 )		1,458
Resell agreements	9,650		—		( 9,650 )		—
Total	$	110,979	$	( 25,714 )	$	( 83,807 )	$	1,458
Financial liabilities:
Derivatives:
Counterparty H	$	10,129	$	( 10,129 )	$	—	$	—
Counterparty F	2,322		( 2,322 )		—		—
Counterparty B	4,522		( 4,522 )		—		—
Counterparty E	2,109		( 2,109 )		—		—
Other counterparties	6,937		( 6,632 )		( 305 )		—
Total derivatives	26,019		( 25,714 )		( 305 )		—
Repurchase agreements	4,342,941		—		( 4,342,941 )		—
Total	$	4,368,960	$	( 25,714 )	$	( 4,343,246 )	$	—

Repurchase Agreements. We utilize securities sold under agreements to repurchase to facilitate the needs of our customers and to facilitate secured short-term funding needs. Securities sold under agreements to repurchase are stated at the amount of cash received in connection with the transaction. We monitor collateral levels on a continuous basis. We may be required to provide additional collateral based on the fair value of the underlying securities. Securities pledged as collateral under repurchase agreements are maintained with our safekeeping agents.

The remaining contractual maturity of repurchase agreements in the consolidated balance sheets as of September 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024, is presented in the following tables.


	Remaining Contractual Maturity of the Agreements
	Overnight and Continuous		Up to 30 Days		30-90 Days		Greater than 90 Days		Total
September 30, 2025
Repurchase agreements:
U.S. Treasury	$	1,927,988	$	—	$	—	$	—	$	1,927,988

Residential mortgage-backed securities	2,635,761		—		—		—		2,635,761
Total borrowings	$	4,563,749	$	—	$	—	$	—	$	4,563,749
Gross amount of recognized liabilities for repurchase agreements									$	4,563,749
Amounts related to agreements not included in offsetting disclosures above									$	—

December 31, 2024
Repurchase agreements:
U.S. Treasury	$	2,170,482	$	—	$	—	$	—	$	2,170,482

Residential mortgage-backed securities	2,172,459		—		—		—		2,172,459
Total borrowings	$	4,342,941	$	—	$	—	$	—	$	4,342,941
Gross amount of recognized liabilities for repurchase agreements									$	4,342,941
Amounts related to agreements not included in offsetting disclosures above									$	—

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Note 9 - Stock-Based Compensation

A combined summary of activity in our active stock plans is presented in the table below. Performance stock units outstanding are presented assuming attainment of the maximum payout rate as set forth by the performance criteria. As of September 30, 2025, there were 2,353,029 shares remaining available for grant for future stock-based compensation awards.


	Deferred Stock Units Outstanding			Non-Vested Restricted Stock Units Outstanding			Performance Stock Units Outstanding			Stock Options Outstanding
	Number of Units	Weighted- Average Fair Value at Grant		Number of Units	Weighted- Average Fair Value at Grant		Number of Units	Weighted- Average Fair Value at Grant		Number of Shares	Weighted- Average Exercise Price
Balance, January 1, 2025	52,779	$	95.37	507,862	$	113.72	230,657	$	103.65	183,976	$	65.11

Granted	8,760	116.47		2,185	126.04		—	—		—	—
Exercised/vested	—	—		( 4,538 )	129.82		( 46,086 )	121.46		( 121,048 )	65.11
Forfeited/expired	—	—		( 6,161 )	113.93		—	—		—	—
Balance, September 30, 2025	61,539	98.38		499,348	113.62		184,571	99.20		62,928	65.11

Shares issued in connection with stock compensation awards are issued from available treasury shares. If no treasury shares are available, new shares are issued from available authorized shares. Shares issued in connection with stock compensation awards along with other related information were as follows:


	Three Months Ended September 30,				Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2025		2024		2025		2024
New shares issued from available authorized shares	—		—		—		—
Shares issued from available treasury stock	30,794		131,465		171,672		254,093
Proceeds from stock option exercises	$	1,925	$	10,275	$	7,881	$	15,484

Stock-based compensation expense is recognized ratably over the requisite service period for all awards. All stock option awards currently outstanding are fully vested and the service period for such awards generally matched the vesting period in most cases. The service period for non-vested stock units does not extend past the date the participant reaches 65 years of age. Deferred stock units granted to non-employee directors generally have immediate vesting and the related expense is fully recognized on the date of grant. For performance stock units, the service period generally matches the three-year performance period specified by the award, however, the service period does not extend past the date the participant reaches 65 years of age. Expense recognized each period is dependent upon our estimate of the number of shares that will ultimately be issued.

Stock-based compensation expense or benefit and the related income tax benefit is presented in the following table. The service period for performance stock units granted each year begins on January 1 of the following year.


	Three Months Ended September 30,				Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2025		2024		2025		2024

Non-vested stock units	$	3,139	$	3,128	$	10,357	$	9,607
Deferred stock units	—		—		1,020		934
Performance stock units	1,131		( 1,369 )		1,806		( 521 )
Total	$	4,270	$	1,759	$	13,183	$	10,020
Income tax benefit	$	647	$	556	$	3,226	$	2,547

Unrecognized stock-based compensation expense at September 30, 2025 is presented in the table below. Unrecognized stock-based compensation expense related to performance stock units is presented assuming attainment of the maximum payout rate as set forth by the performance criteria.


Non-vested stock units	$	15,099
Performance stock units	11,106
Total	$	26,205

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Note 10 - Earnings Per Common Share

Earnings per common share is computed using the two-class method as more fully described in our 2024 Form 10-K. The following table presents a reconciliation of net income available to common shareholders, net earnings allocated to common stock and the number of shares used in the calculation of basic and diluted earnings per common share.


	Three Months Ended September 30,				Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2025		2024		2025		2024
Net income	$	174,380	$	146,501	$	482,305	$	427,690
Less: Preferred stock dividends	1,668		1,668		5,006		5,006
Net income available to common shareholders	172,712		144,833		477,299		422,684
Less: Earnings allocated to participating securities	1,737		1,581		4,713		4,855
Net earnings allocated to common stock	$	170,975	$	143,252	$	472,586	$	417,829

Distributed earnings allocated to common stock	$	64,025	$	60,706	$	189,402	$	178,894
Undistributed earnings allocated to common stock	106,950		82,546		283,184		238,935
Net earnings allocated to common stock	$	170,975	$	143,252	$	472,586	$	417,829

Weighted-average shares outstanding for basic earnings per common share	64,080,473		63,957,786		64,211,247		64,121,925
Dilutive effect of stock compensation	40,042		127,221		54,999		141,501
Weighted-average shares outstanding for diluted earnings per common share	64,120,515		64,085,007		64,266,246		64,263,426

Note 11 - Defined Benefit Plans

The components of the combined net periodic expense (benefit) for our defined benefit pension plans are presented in the table below.


	Three Months Ended September 30,				Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2025		2024		2025		2024
Expected return on plan assets, net of expenses	$	( 2,341 )	$	( 2,411 )	$	( 7,024 )	$	( 7,234 )
Interest cost on projected benefit obligation	1,654		1,662		4,964		4,985
Net amortization and deferral	310		418		929		1,255
Net periodic expense (benefit)	$	( 377 )	$	( 331 )	$	( 1,131 )	$	( 994 )

Our non-qualified defined benefit pension plan is not funded. No contributions to the qualified defined benefit pension plan were made during the nine months ended September 30, 2025. We do no t expect to make any contributions to the qualified defined benefit plan during the remainder of 2025.

Note 12 - Income Taxes

Income tax expense was as follows:


	Three Months Ended September 30,						Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2025			2024			2025			2024
Current income tax expense	$	26,564		$	32,193		$	88,371		$	95,429
Deferred income tax expense (benefit)	7,064			( 3,452 )			3,047			( 11,165 )
Income tax expense, as reported	$	33,628		$	28,741		$	91,418		$	84,264
Effective tax rate	16.2		%	16.4		%	15.9		%	16.5		%

We had a net deferred tax asset totaling $ 285.1 million at September 30, 2025 and $ 375.2 million at December 31, 2024. No valuation allowance for deferred tax assets was recorded as of those dates as management believes it is more likely than not that all of the deferred tax assets will be realized against deferred tax liabilities and projected future taxable income.

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The effective income tax rates differed from the U.S. statutory federal income tax rates of 21 % during the comparable periods primarily due to the effect of tax-exempt income from securities, loans and life insurance policies and the income tax effects associated with stock-based compensation, among other things. There were no unrecognized tax benefits during any of the reported periods. Interest and/or penalties related to income taxes are reported as a component of income tax expense. Such amounts were not significant during the reported periods.

We file income tax returns in the U.S. federal jurisdiction. We are no longer subject to U.S. federal income tax examinations by tax authorities for years before 2021.

Note 13 - Other Comprehensive Income (Loss)

The before and after-tax amounts allocated to each component of other comprehensive income (loss) are presented in the following table. Reclassification adjustments related to securities available for sale are included in net gain (loss) on securities transactions in the accompanying consolidated statements of income. Reclassification adjustments related to defined-benefit post-retirement benefit plans are included in the computation of net periodic pension expense (see Note 11 – Defined Benefit Plans).


	Three Months Ended September 30, 2025						Three Months Ended September 30, 2024
	Before Tax Amount		Tax Expense, (Benefit)		Net of Tax Amount		Before Tax Amount		Tax Expense, (Benefit)		Net of Tax Amount
Securities available for sale and transferred securities:
Change in net unrealized gain/loss during the period	$	273,173	$	57,366	$	215,807	$	498,371	$	104,658	$	393,713
Change in net unrealized gain on securities transferred to held to maturity	—		—		—		( 150 )		( 31 )		( 119 )
Reclassification adjustment for net (gains) losses included in net income	—		—		—		( 16 )		( 3 )		( 13 )
Total securities available for sale and transferred securities	273,173		57,366		215,807		498,205		104,624		393,581
Defined-benefit post-retirement benefit plans:

Reclassification adjustment for net amortization of actuarial gain/loss included in net income as a component of net periodic cost (benefit)	310		65		245		418		88		330
Total defined-benefit post-retirement benefit plans	310		65		245		418		88		330
Total other comprehensive income (loss)	$	273,483	$	57,431	$	216,052	$	498,623	$	104,712	$	393,911

	Nine Months Ended September 30, 2025						Nine Months Ended September 30, 2024
	Before Tax Amount		Tax Expense, (Benefit)		Net of Tax Amount		Before Tax Amount		Tax Expense, (Benefit)		Net of Tax Amount
Securities available for sale and transferred securities:
Change in net unrealized gain/loss during the period	$	414,242	$	86,991	$	327,251	$	257,185	$	54,009	$	203,176
Change in net unrealized gain on securities transferred to held to maturity	( 521 )		( 109 )		( 412 )		( 466 )		( 98 )		( 368 )
Reclassification adjustment for net (gains) losses included in net income	14		3		11		( 16 )		( 3 )		( 13 )
Total securities available for sale and transferred securities	413,735		86,885		326,850		256,703		53,908		202,795
Defined-benefit post-retirement benefit plans:
Reclassification adjustment for net amortization of actuarial gain/loss included in net income as a component of net periodic cost (benefit)	929		195		734		1,255		264		991
Total defined-benefit post-retirement benefit plans	929		195		734		1,255		264		991
Total other comprehensive income (loss)	$	414,664	$	87,080	$	327,584	$	257,958	$	54,172	$	203,786

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Activity in accumulated other comprehensive income (loss), net of tax, was as follows:


	Securities Available For Sale		Defined Benefit Plans		Accumulated Other Comprehensive Income
Balance at January 1, 2025	$	( 1,230,828 )	$	( 21,176 )	$	( 1,252,004 )
Other comprehensive income (loss) before reclassifications	326,839		—		326,839
Reclassification of amounts included in net income	11		734		745
Net other comprehensive income (loss) during period	326,850		734		327,584
Balance at September 30, 2025	$	( 903,978 )	$	( 20,442 )	$	( 924,420 )

Balance at January 1, 2024	$	( 1,094,794 )	$	( 24,425 )	$	( 1,119,219 )
Other comprehensive income (loss) before reclassifications	202,808		—		202,808
Reclassification of amounts included in net income	( 13 )		991		978
Net other comprehensive income (loss) during period	202,795		991		203,786

Balance at September 30, 2024	$	( 891,999 )	$	( 23,434 )	$	( 915,433 )

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Note 14 – Operating Segments

We are managed under a matrix organizational structure whereby our two primary operating segments, Banking and Frost Wealth Advisors, overlap a regional reporting structure. The regions are primarily based upon geographic location and include Austin, Dallas, Fort Worth, Gulf Coast (which includes Corpus Christi and the Rio Grande Valley), Houston, Permian Basin, San Antonio and Statewide. We are primarily managed based on the line of business structure. In that regard, all regions have the same lines of business, which have the same product and service offerings, have similar types and classes of customers and utilize similar service delivery methods. Pricing guidelines for products and services are the same across all regions. The regional reporting structure is primarily a means to scale the lines of business to provide a local, community focus for customer relations and business development. See our 2024 Form 10-K for additional information about our operating segments and related accounting policies.

Our chief executive officer is our chief operating decision maker. We use a match-funded transfer pricing process to allocate costs, capital and resources to each operating segment. The process helps us to (i) identify the cost or opportunity value of funds within each business segment, (ii) measure the profitability of a particular business segment by relating appropriate costs to revenues, (iii) evaluate each business segment in a manner consistent with its economic impact on consolidated earnings, and (iv) enhance asset and liability pricing decisions. Our chief executive officer reviews actual net income versus budgeted net income to assess segment performance on a monthly basis and to make decisions about allocating capital and personnel to the segments. Financial results by operating segment, including significant expense categories provided to the chief operating decision maker, are detailed below.


	Banking		Frost Wealth Advisors		Non-Banks		Consolidated
Three months ended:
September 30, 2025
Interest income	$	618,033	$	2,072	$	—	$	620,105
Interest expense	175,279		104		3,104		178,487
Net interest income (expense)	442,754		1,968		( 3,104 )		441,618
Credit loss expense	6,779		—		—		6,779
Net interest income after credit loss expense	435,975		1,968		( 3,104 )		434,839
Non-interest income:
Trust and investment management fees	—		45,021		( 175 )		44,846
Service charges on deposit accounts	31,436		4		—		31,440
Insurance commissions and fees	15,424		—		—		15,424
Interchange and card transaction fees	5,547		—		—		5,547
Other charges, commissions and fees	8,356		6,374		—		14,730
Net gain (loss) on securities transactions	—		—		—		—
Other	11,941		1,662		57		13,660
Total non-interest income	72,704		53,061		( 118 )		125,647
Non-interest expense:
Salaries and wages	147,908		20,852		395		169,155
Employee benefits	31,151		3,289		25		34,465
Net occupancy	31,197		3,485		—		34,682
Technology, furniture and equipment	41,611		1,820		48		43,479
Deposit insurance	6,315		13		—		6,328
Other	50,120		13,775		474		64,369
Total non-interest expense	308,302		43,234		942		352,478
Income (loss) before income taxes	200,377		11,795		( 4,164 )		208,008
Income tax expense (benefit)	32,591		2,477		( 1,440 )		33,628
Net income (loss)	167,786		9,318		( 2,724 )		174,380
Preferred stock dividends	—		—		1,668		1,668
Net income (loss) available to common shareholders	$	167,786	$	9,318	$	( 4,392 )	$	172,712
Revenues from (expenses to) external customers	$	515,458	$	55,029	$	( 3,222 )	$	567,265
Average assets (in millions)	$	51,828	$	74	$	9	$	51,911

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	Banking		Frost Wealth Advisors		Non-Banks		Consolidated
Three months ended:
September 30, 2024
Interest income	$	605,965	$	2,194	$	—	$	608,159
Interest expense	200,360		108		3,360		203,828
Net interest income (expense)	405,605		2,086		( 3,360 )		404,331
Credit loss expense	19,386		—		—		19,386
Net interest income after credit loss expense	386,219		2,086		( 3,360 )		384,945
Non-interest income:
Trust and investment management fees	—		41,568		( 552 )		41,016
Service charges on deposit accounts	27,409		3		—		27,412
Insurance commissions and fees	14,839		—		—		14,839
Interchange and card transaction fees	5,428		—		—		5,428
Other charges, commissions and fees	7,792		5,268		—		13,060
Net gain (loss) on securities transactions	16		—		—		16
Other	10,564		1,305		67		11,936
Total non-interest income	66,048		48,144		( 485 )		113,707
Non-interest expense:
Salaries and wages	136,811		19,420		406		156,637
Employee benefits	26,112		2,922		26		29,060
Net occupancy	29,361		3,136		—		32,497
Technology, furniture and equipment	36,248		1,465		53		37,766
Deposit insurance	7,225		13		—		7,238
Other	45,874		13,628		710		60,212
Total non-interest expense	281,631		40,584		1,195		323,410
Income (loss) before income taxes	170,636		9,646		( 5,040 )		175,242
Income tax expense (benefit)	28,363		2,026		( 1,648 )		28,741
Net income (loss)	142,273		7,620		( 3,392 )		146,501
Preferred stock dividends	—		—		1,668		1,668
Net income (loss) available to common shareholders	$	142,273	$	7,620	$	( 5,060 )	$	144,833
Revenues from (expenses to) external customers	$	471,653	$	50,230	$	( 3,845 )	$	518,038
Average assets (in millions)	$	49,392	$	65	$	10	$	49,467

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	Banking		Frost Wealth Advisors		Non-Banks		Consolidated
Nine months ended:
September 30, 2025
Interest income	$	1,801,149	$	6,031	$	—	$	1,807,180
Interest expense	510,129		292		9,317		519,738
Net interest income (expense)	1,291,020		5,739		( 9,317 )		1,287,442
Credit loss expense	32,978		—		—		32,978
Net interest income after credit loss expense	1,258,042		5,739		( 9,317 )		1,254,464
Non-interest income:
Trust and investment management fees	—		132,409		( 963 )		131,446
Service charges on deposit accounts	89,203		9		—		89,212
Insurance commissions and fees	50,322		—		—		50,322
Interchange and card transaction fees	16,568		—		—		16,568
Other charges, commissions and fees	23,793		18,490		—		42,283
Net gain (loss) on securities transactions	( 14 )		—		—		( 14 )
Other	32,328		4,613		173		37,114
Total non-interest income	212,200		155,521		( 790 )		366,931
Non-interest expense:
Salaries and wages	431,089		59,885		1,187		492,161
Employee benefits	97,733		11,640		75		109,448
Net occupancy	91,826		10,773		—		102,599
Technology, furniture and equipment	119,346		4,672		151		124,169
Deposit insurance	20,065		37		—		20,102
Other	155,360		39,829		4,004		199,193
Total non-interest expense	915,419		126,836		5,417		1,047,672
Income (loss) before income taxes	554,823		34,424		( 15,524 )		573,723
Income tax expense (benefit)	89,008		7,229		( 4,819 )		91,418
Net income (loss)	465,815		27,195		( 10,705 )		482,305
Preferred stock dividends	—		—		5,006		5,006
Net income (loss) available to common shareholders	$	465,815	$	27,195	$	( 15,711 )	$	477,299
Revenues from (expenses to) external customers	$	1,503,220	$	161,260	$	( 10,107 )	$	1,654,373
Average assets (in millions)	$	51,265	$	70	$	9	$	51,344

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	Banking		Frost Wealth Advisors		Non-Banks		Consolidated
Nine months ended:
September 30, 2024
Interest income	$	1,783,958	$	5,986	$	—	$	1,789,944
Interest expense	588,278		324		10,248		598,850
Net interest income (expense)	1,195,680		5,662		( 10,248 )		1,191,094
Credit loss expense	48,823		—		—		48,823
Net interest income after credit loss expense	1,146,857		5,662		( 10,248 )		1,142,271
Non-interest income:
Trust and investment management fees	—		123,098		( 1,593 )		121,505
Service charges on deposit accounts	78,312		9		—		78,321
Insurance commissions and fees	47,054		—		—		47,054
Interchange and card transaction fees	15,253		—		—		15,253
Other charges, commissions and fees	22,281		15,859		—		38,140
Net gain (loss) on securities transactions	16		—		—		16
Other	31,690		4,093		202		35,985
Total non-interest income	194,606		143,059		( 1,391 )		336,274
Non-interest expense:
Salaries and wages	399,674		54,983		1,217		455,874
Employee benefits	83,649		10,104		79		93,832
Net occupancy	86,369		10,280		—		96,649
Technology, furniture and equipment	104,293		4,265		154		108,712
Deposit insurance	30,291		54		—		30,345
Other	140,381		36,746		4,052		181,179
Total non-interest expense	844,657		116,432		5,502		966,591
Income (loss) before income taxes	496,806		32,289		( 17,141 )		511,954
Income tax expense (benefit)	82,817		6,781		( 5,334 )		84,264
Net income (loss)	413,989		25,508		( 11,807 )		427,690
Preferred stock dividends	—		—		5,006		5,006
Net income (loss) available to common shareholders	$	413,989	$	25,508	$	( 16,813 )	$	422,684
Revenues from (expenses to) external customers	$	1,390,286	$	148,721	$	( 11,639 )	$	1,527,368
Average assets (in millions)	$	49,170	$	61	$	9	$	49,240

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Note 15 – Fair Value Measurements

The fair value of an asset or liability is the price that would be received to sell that asset or paid to transfer that liability in an orderly transaction occurring in the principal market (or most advantageous market in the absence of a principal market) for such asset or liability. In estimating fair value, we utilize valuation techniques that are consistent with the market approach, the income approach and/or the cost approach. Such valuation techniques are consistently applied. Inputs to valuation techniques include the assumptions that market participants would use in pricing an asset or liability. ASC Topic 820 establishes a three-level fair value hierarchy for valuation inputs that gives the highest priority to quoted prices in active markets for identical assets or liabilities and the lowest priority to unobservable inputs. See our 2024 Form 10-K for additional information regarding the fair value hierarchy and a description of our valuation techniques.

Financial Assets and Financial Liabilities. The tables below summarize financial assets and financial liabilities measured at fair value on a recurring basis as of September 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024, segregated by the level of the valuation inputs within the fair value hierarchy of ASC Topic 820 utilized to measure fair value.


	Level 1 Inputs		Level 2 Inputs		Level 3 Inputs		Total Fair Value
September 30, 2025
Securities available for sale:
U.S. Treasury	$	2,863,796	$	—	$	—	$	2,863,796
Residential mortgage-backed securities	—		8,689,376		—		8,689,376
States and political subdivisions	—		5,289,171		—		5,289,171
Other	—		42,341		—		42,341
Trading account securities:
U.S. Treasury	36,246		—		—		36,246
States and political subdivisions	—		576		—		576
Derivative assets:
Interest rate swaps, caps, and floors	—		61,438		—		61,438
Commodity swaps and options	—		36,223		—		36,223
Foreign currency forward contracts	—		136		—		136
Derivative liabilities:
Interest rate swaps, caps, and floors	—		61,439		—		61,439
Commodity swaps and options	—		34,445		—		34,445
Foreign currency forward contracts	—		136		—		136
December 31, 2024
Securities available for sale:
U.S. Treasury	$	3,442,320	$	—	$	—	$	3,442,320
Residential mortgage-backed securities	—		6,997,902		—		6,997,902
States and political subdivisions	—		4,560,224		—		4,560,224
Other	—		43,179		—		43,179
Trading account securities:
U.S. Treasury	33,910		—		—		33,910
States and political subdivisions	—		—		—		—
Derivative assets:
Interest rate swaps, caps, and floors	—		79,122		—		79,122
Commodity swaps and options	—		48,503		—		48,503

Derivative liabilities:
Interest rate swaps, caps, and floors	—		79,122		—		79,122
Commodity swaps and options	—		47,304		—		47,304

Certain financial assets and financial liabilities are measured at fair value on a nonrecurring basis; that is, the instruments are not measured at fair value on an ongoing basis but are subject to fair value adjustments in certain circumstances. Financial assets measured at fair value on a non-recurring basis during the reported periods include certain collateral dependent loans reported at the fair value of the underlying collateral if repayment is expected solely from the collateral.

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The following table presents collateral dependent loans that were remeasured and reported at fair value through a specific allocation of the allowance for credit losses on loans based upon the fair value of the underlying collateral during the reported periods.


	Nine Months Ended September 30, 2025				Nine Months Ended September 30, 2024
	Level 2		Level 3		Level 2		Level 3
Carrying value before allocations	$	6,719	$	11,078	$	18,831	$	43,046
Specific (allocations) reversals of prior allocations	( 648 )		( 706 )		( 2,220 )		( 13,145 )
Fair value	$	6,071	$	10,372	$	16,611	$	29,901

Non-Financial Assets and Non-Financial Liabilities. We do not have any non-financial assets or non-financial liabilities measured at fair value on a recurring basis. From time to time, non-financial assets measured at fair value on a non-recurring basis may include certain foreclosed assets which, upon initial recognition, were remeasured and reported at fair value through a charge-off to the allowance for loan losses and certain foreclosed assets which, subsequent to their initial recognition, were remeasured at fair value through a write-down included in other non-interest expense.

The following table presents foreclosed assets that were remeasured and reported at fair value during the reported periods:


	Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2025		2024
Foreclosed assets remeasured at initial recognition:
Carrying value of foreclosed assets prior to remeasurement	$	659	$	2,633
Charge-offs recognized in the allowance for loan losses	—		—
Fair value	$	659	$	2,633

Financial Instruments Reported at Amortized Cost. The estimated fair values of financial instruments that are reported at amortized cost in our consolidated balance sheets, segregated by the level of the valuation inputs within the fair value hierarchy utilized to measure fair value, were as follows:


	September 30, 2025				December 31, 2024
	Carrying Amount		Estimated Fair Value		Carrying Amount		Estimated Fair Value
Financial assets:
Level 2 inputs:
Cash and cash equivalents	$	7,940,236	$	7,940,236	$	10,234,258	$	10,234,258
Securities held to maturity	3,454,732		3,288,919		3,533,775		3,360,546
Accrued interest receivable	206,622		206,622		236,591		236,591
Level 3 inputs:
Loans, net	21,165,353		20,917,289		20,484,662		20,066,512
Financial liabilities:
Level 2 inputs:
Deposits	42,517,152		42,507,046		42,722,748		42,712,907
Federal funds purchased	31,775		31,775		21,975		21,975
Repurchase agreements	4,563,749		4,563,749		4,342,941		4,342,941
Junior subordinated deferrable interest debentures	123,227		123,712		123,184		123,712
Subordinated notes	99,765		99,500		99,648		98,453
Accrued interest payable	50,213		50,213		58,870		58,870

Under ASC Topic 825, entities may choose to measure eligible financial instruments at fair value at specified election dates. The fair value measurement option (i) may be applied instrument by instrument, with certain exceptions, (ii) is generally irrevocable and (iii) is applied only to entire instruments and not to portions of instruments. Unrealized gains and losses on items for which the fair value measurement option has been elected must be reported in earnings at each subsequent reporting date. During the reported periods, we had no financial instruments measured at fair value under the fair value measurement option.

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Note 16 - Accounting Standards Updates

Information about certain recently issued accounting standards updates is presented below. Also refer to Note 19 - Accounting Standards Updates in our 2024 Form 10-K for additional information related to previously issued accounting standards updates.

ASU No. 2023-07, “Segment Reporting (Topic 280): Improvements to Reportable Segment Disclosures.” ASU 2023-07 expands segment disclosure requirements for public entities to require disclosure of significant segment expenses and other segment items on an annual and interim basis and to provide in interim periods all disclosures about a reportable segment’s profit or loss and assets that are currently required annually. As noted in our 2024 Form 10-K, we adopted ASU 2023-07 for our annual financial statements in 2024. ASU 2023-07 became effective for interim periods in 2025. See Note 14 - Operating Segments.

ASU No. 2023-09, “Income Taxes (Topic 740): Improvements to Income Tax Disclosures.” ASU 2023-09 requires public business entities to disclose in their rate reconciliation table additional categories of information about federal, state and foreign income taxes and to provide more details about the reconciling items in some categories if items meet a quantitative threshold. ASU 2023-09 also requires all entities to disclose income taxes paid, net of refunds, disaggregated by federal, state and foreign taxes for annual periods and to disaggregate the information by jurisdiction based on a quantitative threshold, among other things. ASU 2023-09 will be effective for our annual financial statements for the year ended December 31, 2025.

ASU No. 2024-03, “Income Statement - Reporting Comprehensive Income - Expense Disaggregation Disclosures (Subtopic 220-40): Disaggregation of Income Statement Expenses.” ASU 2024-03 requires disaggregated disclosure of income statement expenses for public business entities. ASU 2024-03 requires new financial statement disclosures in tabular format, disaggregating information about prescribed categories underlying any relevant income statement expense caption. The prescribed categories include, among other things, employee compensation, depreciation, and intangible asset amortization. Additionally, entities must disclose the total amount of selling expenses and, in annual reporting periods, an entity’s definition of selling expenses. ASU 2024-03 is effective for us, on a prospective basis, for annual periods beginning in 2027, and interim periods within fiscal years beginning in 2028, though early adoption and retrospective application is permitted. ASU 2024-03 is not expected to have a significant impact on our financial statements.

ASU No. 2025-05,“Financial Instruments - Credit Losses (Topic 326): Measurement of Credit Losses for Accounts Receivable and Contract Assets.” ASU 2025-05 provides all entities, when developing reasonable and supportable forecasts as part of estimating expected credit losses on current accounts receivable and/or current contract assets arising from transactions under ASC Topic 606 - Revenue from Contracts with Customers, a practical expedient whereby entities can assume that current conditions as of the balance sheet date do not change for the remaining life of the asset. ASU 2025-05 will be effective in 2026 and is not expected to have a significant impact on our financial statements.

ASU No. 2025-06,“Intangibles - Goodwill and Other - Internal-Use Software (Subtopic 350-40): Targeted Improvements to the Accounting for Internal-Use Software.” ASU 2025-06 simplifies and modernizes the accounting for internal-use software by removing prescriptive project stage guidance and introducing a new capitalization threshold. Under the revised standard, software development costs are capitalized when management authorizes and commits funding for the project and it is probable the software will be completed and used as intended. ASU 2025-06 will be effective in 2028 and is not expected to have a significant impact on our financial statements.

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Item 2. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations

Financial Review

Cullen/Frost Bankers, Inc.

The following discussion should be read in conjunction with our consolidated financial statements, and notes thereto, for the year ended December 31, 2024, and the other information included in the 2024 Form 10-K. Operating results for the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 are not necessarily indicative of the results for the year ending December 31, 2025 or any future period.

Dollar amounts in tables are stated in thousands, except for per share amounts.

Forward-Looking Statements and Factors that Could Affect Future Results

Certain statements contained in this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q that are not statements of historical fact constitute forward-looking statements within the meaning of the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995 (the “Act”), notwithstanding that such statements are not specifically identified as such. In addition, certain statements may be contained in our future filings with the SEC, in press releases, and in oral and written statements made by us or with our approval that are not statements of historical fact and constitute forward-looking statements within the meaning of the Act. Examples of forward-looking statements include, but are not limited to: (i) projections of revenues, expenses, income or loss, earnings or loss per share, the payment or nonpayment of dividends, capital structure and other financial items; (ii) statements of plans, objectives and expectations of Cullen/Frost or its management or Board of Directors, including those relating to products, services or operations; (iii) statements of future economic performance; and (iv) statements of assumptions underlying such statements. Words such as “believes,” “anticipates,” “expects,” “intends,” “targeted,” “continue,” “remain,” “will,” “should,” “may,” and other similar expressions are intended to identify forward-looking statements but are not the exclusive means of identifying such statements.

Forward-looking statements involve risks and uncertainties that may cause actual results to differ materially from those in such statements. Factors that could cause actual results to differ from those discussed in the forward-looking statements include, but are not limited to:

• The effects of and changes in trade and monetary and fiscal policies and laws, including the interest rate policies of the Federal Reserve Board and the implementation of tariffs and other protectionist trade policies.

• Inflation, interest rate, securities market, and monetary fluctuations.

• Local, regional, national, and international economic conditions and the impact they may have on us and our customers and our assessment of that impact.

• Changes in the financial performance and/or condition of our borrowers.

• Changes in the mix of loan geographies, sectors and types or the level of non-performing assets and charge-offs.

• Changes in estimates of future credit loss reserve requirements based upon the periodic review thereof under relevant regulatory and accounting requirements.

• Changes in our liquidity position.

• Impairment of our goodwill or other intangible assets.

• The timely development and acceptance of new products and services and perceived overall value of these products and services by users.

• Changes in consumer spending, borrowing, and saving habits.

• Greater than expected costs or difficulties related to the integration of new products and lines of business.

• Technological changes.

• The cost and effects of cyber incidents or other failures, interruptions, or security breaches of our systems or those of our customers or third-party providers.

• Acquisitions and integration of acquired businesses.

• Changes in the reliability of our vendors, internal control systems or information systems.

• Our ability to increase market share and control expenses.

• Our ability to attract and retain qualified employees.

• Changes in our organization, compensation, and benefit plans.

• The soundness of other financial institutions.

• Volatility and disruption in national and international financial and commodity markets.

• Changes in the competitive environment in our markets and among banking organizations and other financial service providers.

• Government intervention in the U.S. financial system.

• Political or economic instability.

• Acts of God or of war or terrorism.

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• The potential impact of climate change.

• The impact of pandemics, epidemics, or any other health-related crisis.

• The costs and effects of legal and regulatory developments, the resolution of legal proceedings or regulatory or other governmental inquiries, the results of regulatory examinations or reviews and the ability to obtain required regulatory approvals.

• The effect of changes in laws and regulations (including laws and regulations concerning taxes, banking, securities, and insurance) and their application with which we and our subsidiaries must comply.

• The effect of changes in accounting policies and practices, as may be adopted by the regulatory agencies, as well as the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board, the Financial Accounting Standards Board and other accounting standard setters.

• Our success at managing the risks involved in the foregoing items.

In addition, financial markets, international relations, and global supply chains have been significantly impacted by recent U.S. trade policies and practices. Due to the rapidly evolving and changing state of U.S. trade policies, the amount and duration of any tariffs and their ultimate impact on us, our customers, financial markets, and the overall U.S. and global economies is currently uncertain. Nonetheless, prolonged uncertainty, elevated tariff levels or their wide-spread use in U.S. trade policy could weaken economic conditions and adversely impact the ability of borrowers to repay outstanding loans or the value of collateral securing these loans or adversely affect financial markets. To the extent that these risks may have a negative impact on the financial condition of borrowers or financial markets, it could also have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Forward-looking statements speak only as of the date on which such statements are made. We do not undertake any obligation to update any forward-looking statement to reflect events or circumstances after the date on which such statement is made, or to reflect the occurrence of unanticipated events.

Application of Critical Accounting Policies and Accounting Estimates

We follow accounting and reporting policies that conform, in all material respects, to accounting principles generally accepted in the United States and to general practices within the financial services industry. The preparation of financial statements in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the amounts reported in the financial statements and accompanying notes. While we base estimates on historical experience, current information and other factors deemed to be relevant, actual results could differ from those estimates.

We consider accounting estimates to be critical to reported financial results if (i) the accounting estimate requires management to make assumptions about matters that are highly uncertain and (ii) different estimates that management reasonably could have used for the accounting estimate in the current period, or changes in the accounting estimate that are reasonably likely to occur from period to period, could have a material impact on our financial statements.

Accounting policies related to the allowance for credit losses on financial instruments including loans and off-balance-sheet credit exposures are considered to be critical as these policies involve considerable subjective judgment and estimation by management. In the case of loans, the allowance for credit losses is a contra-asset valuation account, calculated in accordance with Accounting Standards Codification (“ASC”) Topic 326 (“ASC 326”) Financial Instruments - Credit Losses, that is deducted from the amortized cost basis of loans to present the net amount expected to be collected. In the case of off-balance-sheet credit exposures, the allowance for credit losses is a liability account, calculated in accordance with ASC 326, reported as a component of accrued interest payable and other liabilities in our consolidated balance sheets. The amount of each allowance account represents management's best estimate of current expected credit losses on these financial instruments considering available information, from internal and external sources, relevant to assessing exposure to credit loss over the contractual term of the instrument. Relevant available information includes historical credit loss experience, current conditions, and reasonable and supportable forecasts. While historical credit loss experience provides the basis for the estimation of expected credit losses, adjustments to historical loss information may be made for differences in current portfolio-specific risk characteristics, environmental conditions, or other relevant factors. While management utilizes its best judgment and information available, the ultimate adequacy of our allowance accounts is dependent upon a variety of factors beyond our control, including the performance of our portfolios, the economy, changes in interest rates and the view of the regulatory authorities toward classification of assets. Refer to the 2024 Form 10-K for additional information regarding critical accounting policies.

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Overview

A discussion of our results of operations is presented below. Certain reclassifications have been made to make prior periods comparable. Taxable-equivalent adjustments are the result of increasing income from tax-free loans and investments by an amount equal to the taxes that would be paid if the income were fully taxable based on a 21% federal tax rate, thus making tax-exempt yields comparable to taxable asset yields.

Results of Operations

Net income available to common shareholders totaled $172.7 million, or $2.67 per diluted common share, and $477.3 million, or $7.36 per diluted common share, for the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025, compared to $144.8 million, or $2.24 per diluted common share, and $422.7 million, or $6.51 per diluted common share for the three and nine months ended September 30, 2024.

Selected data for the comparable periods was as follows:


	Three Months Ended September 30,						Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2025			2024			2025			2024
Taxable-equivalent net interest income	$	463,667		$	425,160		$	1,350,630		$	1,254,148
Taxable-equivalent adjustment	22,049			20,829			63,188			63,054
Net interest income	441,618			404,331			1,287,442			1,191,094
Credit loss expense	6,779			19,386			32,978			48,823
Net interest income after credit loss expense	434,839			384,945			1,254,464			1,142,271
Non-interest income	125,647			113,707			366,931			336,274
Non-interest expense	352,478			323,410			1,047,672			966,591
Income before income taxes	208,008			175,242			573,723			511,954
Income taxes	33,628			28,741			91,418			84,264
Net income	174,380			146,501			482,305			427,690
Preferred stock dividends	1,668			1,668			5,006			5,006
Net income available to common shareholders	$	172,712		$	144,833		$	477,299		$	422,684
Earnings per common share – basic	$	2.67		$	2.24		$	7.36		$	6.52
Earnings per common share – diluted	2.67			2.24			7.36			6.51
Dividends per common share	1.00			0.95			2.95			2.79
Return on average assets	1.32		%	1.16		%	1.24		%	1.15		%
Return on average common equity	16.72			15.48			15.98			15.90
Average shareholders’ equity to average assets	8.17			7.82			8.06			7.51

Net income available to common shareholders increased $27.9 million, or 19.2%, for the three months ended September 30, 2025 and increased $54.6 million, or 12.9%, for the nine months ended September 30, 2025, compared to the same periods in 2024. The increase during the three months ended September 30, 2025 was primarily the result of a $37.3 million increase in net interest income, a $12.6 million decrease in credit loss expense, and a $11.9 million increase in non-interest income partly offset by a $29.1 million increase in non-interest expense and a $4.9 million increase in income tax expense. The increase during the nine months ended September 30, 2025 was primarily the result of a $96.3 million increase in net interest income, a $30.7 million increase in non-interest income, and a $15.8 million decrease in credit loss expense partly offset by an $81.1 million increase in non-interest expense and a $7.2 million increase in income tax expense.

Details of the changes in the various components of net income are further discussed below.

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Net Interest Income

Net interest income is the difference between interest income on earning assets, such as loans and securities, and interest expense on liabilities, such as deposits and borrowings, which are used to fund those assets. Net interest income is our largest source of revenue, representing 77.8% of total revenue during the first nine months of 2025. Net interest margin is the ratio of taxable-equivalent net interest income to average earning assets for the period. The level of interest rates and the volume and mix of earning assets and interest-bearing liabilities impact net interest income and net interest margin.

The Federal Reserve influences the general market rates of interest, including the deposit and loan rates offered by many financial institutions. As of September 30, 2025, approximately 40.5% of our loans had a fixed interest rate, while the remaining loans had floating interest rates that were primarily tied to a benchmark developed by the American Financial Exchange, the Secured Overnight Financing Rate (“SOFR”) (approximately 36.2%); the prime interest rate (approximately 20.6%); or the American Interbank Offered Rate (“AMERIBOR”) (approximately 2.7%). Certain other loans are tied to other indices; however, such loans do not make up a significant portion of our loan portfolio as of September 30, 2025.

Select average market rates for the periods indicated are presented in the table below.


	Three Months Ended September 30,				Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2025		2024		2025		2024
Federal funds target rate upper bound	4.46	%	5.43	%	4.49	%	5.48	%
Effective federal funds rate	4.30		5.26		4.32		5.31
Interest on reserve balances at the Federal Reserve	4.36		5.33		4.39		5.38
Prime	7.47		8.46		7.49		8.48
AMERIBOR Term-30 (1)	4.36		5.30		4.38		5.34
AMERIBOR Term-90 (1)	4.35		5.26		4.41		5.38
1-Month Term SOFR (2)	4.29		5.22		4.31		5.29
3-Month Term SOFR (2)	4.20		5.07		4.26		5.24

____________________

(1) AMERIBOR Term-30 and AMERIBOR Term-90 are published by the American Financial Exchange.

(2) 1-Month Term SOFR and 3-Month Term SOFR market data are the property of Chicago Mercantile Exchange, Inc., or its licensors as applicable. All rights reserved, or otherwise licensed by Chicago Mercantile Exchange, Inc.

As of September 30, 2025, the target range for the federal funds rate was 4.00% to 4.25%. In September 2025, the Federal Reserve released projections whereby the midpoint of the projected appropriate target range for the federal funds rate would fall to 3.6% by the end of 2025 and subsequently decrease to 3.4% by the end of 2026. While there can be no such assurance that any such decreases in the federal funds rate will occur, these projections imply up to a 50 basis point decrease in the federal funds rate during the remainder of 2025, followed by a 25 basis point decrease in 2026.

We are primarily funded by core deposits, with non-interest-bearing demand deposits historically being a significant source of funds. This lower-cost funding base is expected to have a positive impact on our net interest income and net interest margin, particularly in rising or high interest rate environments. Nonetheless, our access to and pricing of deposits may be negatively impacted by, among other factors, periods of higher interest rates which could promote increased competition for deposits, including from new financial technology competitors, or provide customers with alternative investment options. See Item 3. Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk elsewhere in this report for information about our sensitivity to increases and decreases in interest rates. Further analysis of the components of our net interest margin is presented below.

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The following tables present an analysis of net interest income and net interest spread for the periods indicated, including average outstanding balances for each major category of interest-earning assets and interest-bearing liabilities, the interest earned or paid on such amounts, and the average rate earned or paid on such assets or liabilities, respectively. The tables also set forth the net interest margin on average total interest-earning assets for the same periods. For these computations: (i) average balances are presented on a daily average basis, (ii) information is shown on a taxable-equivalent basis assuming a 21% tax rate, (iii) average loans include loans on non-accrual status, and (iv) average securities include unrealized gains and losses on securities available for sale, while yields are based on average amortized cost.


	Quarter To Date						Quarter To Date
	September 30, 2025						September 30, 2024
	Average Balance		Interest Income/ Expense		Yield/ Cost		Average Balance		Interest Income/ Expense		Yield/ Cost
Assets:
Interest-bearing deposits	$	6,815,763	$	75,914	4.36	%	$	7,072,979	$	96,215	5.32	%
Federal funds sold	2,723		33		4.74		4,370		63		5.65
Resell agreements	9,650		113		4.58		41,447		580		5.48
Securities:
Taxable	13,305,618		125,977		3.48		12,281,222		99,561		2.94
Tax-exempt	6,906,894		82,476		4.60		6,616,468		73,193		4.32
Total securities	20,212,512		208,453		3.85		18,897,690		172,754		3.40
Loans, net of unearned discounts	21,451,733		357,641		6.61		20,083,921		359,376		7.12
Total Earning Assets and Average Rate Earned	48,492,381		642,154		5.11		46,100,407		628,988		5.26
Cash and due from banks	553,819						541,341
Allowance for credit losses on loans and securities	(281,009)						(258,263)
Premises and equipment, net	1,289,816						1,223,981
Accrued interest and other assets	1,855,641						1,859,928
Total Assets	$	51,910,648					$	49,467,394

Liabilities:
Non-interest-bearing demand deposits	13,839,072						13,658,513
Interest-bearing deposits:
Savings and interest checking	9,689,097		5,781		0.24		9,470,163		9,079		0.38
Money market deposit accounts	11,817,140		67,833		2.28		11,122,329		78,213		2.80
Time accounts	6,725,842		64,254		3.79		6,482,065		77,036		4.73
Total interest-bearing deposits	28,232,079		137,868		1.94		27,074,557		164,328		2.41
Total deposits	42,071,151				1.30		40,733,070				1.60
Federal funds purchased	29,233		324		4.34		19,899		271		5.33
Repurchase agreements	4,592,950		37,191		3.17		3,777,217		35,868		3.72
Junior subordinated deferrable interest debentures	123,222		1,940		6.30		123,164		2,197		7.14
Subordinated notes	99,751		1,164		4.69		99,594		1,164		4.69

Total Interest-Bearing Funds and Average Rate Paid	33,077,235		178,487		2.13		31,094,431		203,828		2.60
Accrued interest and other liabilities	751,158						846,065
Total Liabilities	47,667,465						45,599,009
Shareholders’ Equity	4,243,183						3,868,385
Total Liabilities and Shareholders’ Equity	$	51,910,648					$	49,467,394
Net interest income			$	463,667					$	425,160
Net interest spread					2.98	%					2.66	%
Net interest income to total average earning assets					3.69	%					3.56	%

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	Year To Date						Year To Date
	September 30, 2025						September 30, 2024
	Average Balance		Interest Income/ Expense		Yield/ Cost		Average Balance		Interest Income/ Expense		Yield/ Cost
Assets:
Interest-bearing deposits	$	6,739,488	$	224,149	4.39	%	$	7,194,438	$	294,215	5.37	%
Federal funds sold	4,736		170		4.73		5,107		223		5.74
Resell agreements	14,012		488		4.60		70,151		2,977		5.58
Securities:
Taxable	13,320,003		372,360		3.42		12,272,444		296,635		2.90
Tax-exempt	6,682,301		232,253		4.48		6,677,684		220,774		4.30
Total securities	20,002,304		604,613		3.76		18,950,128		517,409		3.36
Loans, net of unearned discounts	21,103,347		1,040,948		6.59		19,617,869		1,038,174		7.07
Total Earning Assets and Average Rate Earned	47,863,887		1,870,368		5.06		45,837,693		1,852,998		5.21
Cash and due from banks	578,135						567,721
Allowance for credit losses on loans and securities	(276,488)						(253,740)
Premises and equipment, net	1,275,317						1,216,177
Accrued interest and other assets	1,903,294						1,872,405
Total Assets	$	51,344,145					$	49,240,256

Liabilities:
Non-interest-bearing demand deposits	13,808,687						13,770,732
Interest-bearing deposits:
Savings and interest checking	9,858,510		17,743		0.24		9,700,395		28,891		0.40
Money market deposit accounts	11,590,603		197,133		2.27		11,063,066		233,029		2.81
Time accounts	6,573,477		190,453		3.87		6,121,852		217,302		4.74
Total interest-bearing deposits	28,022,590		405,329		1.93		26,885,313		479,222		2.38
Total deposits	41,831,277				1.30		40,656,045				1.57
Federal funds purchased	24,346		806		4.37		30,863		1,262		5.37
Repurchase agreements	4,331,773		104,287		3.17		3,797,064		108,118		3.74
Junior subordinated deferrable interest debentures	123,208		5,824		6.23		123,150		6,756		7.21
Subordinated notes	99,712		3,492		4.69		99,555		3,492		4.69

Total Interest-Bearing Funds and Average Rate Paid	32,601,629		519,738		2.13		30,935,945		598,850		2.58
Accrued interest and other liabilities	795,315						836,852
Total Liabilities	47,205,631						45,543,529
Shareholders’ Equity	4,138,514						3,696,727
Total Liabilities and Shareholders’ Equity	$	51,344,145					$	49,240,256
Net interest income			$	1,350,630					$	1,254,148
Net interest spread					2.93	%					2.63	%
Net interest income to total average earning assets					3.65	%					3.52	%

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The following table presents the changes in taxable-equivalent net interest income and identifies the changes due to differences in the average volume of earning assets and interest-bearing liabilities and the changes due to changes in the average interest rate on those assets and liabilities. The changes in net interest income due to changes in both average volume and average interest rate have been allocated to the average volume change or the average interest rate change in proportion to the absolute amounts of the change in each. The comparison between the quarters includes an additional change factor that shows the effect of the difference in the number of days in each period for assets and liabilities that accrue interest based upon the actual number of days in the period, as further discussed below.


	Three Months Ended
	September 30, 2025 vs. September 30, 2024
	Increase (Decrease) Due to Change in
	Rate		Volume		Number of days		Total
Interest-bearing deposits	$	(16,896)	$	(3,405)	$	—	$	(20,301)
Federal funds sold	(9)		(21)		—		(30)
Resell agreements	(82)		(385)		—		(467)
Securities:
Taxable	19,395		7,021		—		26,416
Tax-exempt	4,876		4,407		—		9,283
Loans, net of unearned discounts	(25,850)		24,115		—		(1,735)
Total earning assets	(18,566)		31,732		—		13,166
Savings and interest checking	(3,495)		197		—		(3,298)
Money market deposit accounts	(15,046)		4,666		—		(10,380)
Time accounts	(15,596)		2,814		—		(12,782)
Federal funds purchased	(55)		108		—		53
Repurchase agreements	(5,628)		6,951		—		1,323
Junior subordinated deferrable interest debentures	(258)		1		—		(257)
Subordinated notes	—		—		—		—
Total interest-bearing liabilities	(40,078)		14,737		—		(25,341)
Net change	$	21,512	$	16,995	$	—	$	38,507


	Nine Months Ended
	September 30, 2025 vs. September 30, 2024
	Increase (Decrease) Due to Change in
	Rate		Volume		Number of days		Total
Interest-bearing deposits	$	(51,237)	$	(17,755)	$	(1,074)	$	(70,066)
Federal funds sold	(37)		(15)		(1)		(53)
Resell agreements	(446)		(2,032)		(11)		(2,489)
Securities:
Taxable	55,907		20,070		(252)		75,725
Tax-exempt	9,669		1,810		—		11,479
Loans, net of unearned discounts	(71,303)		77,866		(3,789)		2,774
Total earning assets	(57,447)		79,944		(5,127)		17,370
Savings and interest checking	(11,522)		479		(105)		(11,148)
Money market deposit accounts	(45,884)		10,838		(850)		(35,896)
Time accounts	(41,474)		15,418		(793)		(26,849)
Federal funds purchased	(212)		(239)		(5)		(456)
Repurchase agreements	(17,360)		13,924		(395)		(3,831)
Junior subordinated deferrable interest debentures	(935)		3		—		(932)
Subordinated notes	—		—		—		—
Total interest-bearing liabilities	(117,387)		40,423		(2,148)		(79,112)
Net change	$	59,940	$	39,521	$	(2,979)	$	96,482

Taxable-equivalent net interest income for the three months ended September 30, 2025 increased $38.5 million, or 9.1%, while taxable-equivalent net interest income for the nine months ended September 30, 2025, increased $96.5 million, or 7.7%, compared to the same periods in 2024. Taxable-equivalent net interest income for the nine months ended September 30, 2025,

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included 273 days compared to 274 for the same period in 2024 as a result of the leap year. The additional day added approximately $3.0 million to taxable-equivalent net interest income during the nine months ended September 30, 2024. Excluding the impact of the additional day in 2024 results in an effective increase in taxable-equivalent net interest income of approximately $99.5 million during the nine months ended September 30, 2025.

The increase in taxable-equivalent net interest income during the three months ended September 30, 2025 was primarily related to decreases in the average costs of interest-bearing deposit accounts and repurchase agreements combined with increases in the average yields on and volumes of taxable and, to a lesser extent, tax-exempt securities and an increase in the average volume of loans, among other things. The impact of these items was partly offset by a decrease in average yield on loans, decreases in the average yield on and volume of interest-bearing deposits (primarily amounts held in an interest-bearing account at the Federal Reserve), and increases in the average volumes of interest-bearing deposit accounts and repurchase agreements, among other things.

The increase in taxable-equivalent net interest income during the nine months ended September 30, 2025 was primarily related to decreases in the average costs of interest-bearing deposit accounts and repurchase agreements combined with an increase in the average volume of loans, and increases in the average yield on and volume of taxable securities, and, to a lesser extent, tax-exempt securities, among other things. The impact of these items was partly offset by a decrease in average yield on loans, decreases in the average yield on and volume of interest-bearing deposits (primarily amounts held in an interest-bearing account at the Federal Reserve), and a decrease in the average volume of resell agreements, among other things, combined with increases in the average volumes of interest-bearing deposit accounts and repurchase agreements, among other things.

As a result of the aforementioned fluctuations, the taxable-equivalent net interest margin increased 13 basis points from 3.56% during the three months ended September 30, 2024 to 3.69% during the three months ended September 30, 2025 while the taxable-equivalent net interest margin increased 13 basis points from 3.52% during the nine months ended September 30, 2024 to 3.65% during the nine months ended September 30, 2025.

The average volume of interest-earning assets for the three months ended September 30, 2025 increased $2.4 billion while the average volume of interest-earning assets for the nine months ended September 30, 2025 increased $2.0 billion compared to the same periods in 2024. The increase in the average volume of interest-earning assets during the three months ended September 30, 2025 was primarily related to a $1.4 billion increase in average loans, a $1.0 billion increase in average taxable securities, and a $290.4 million increase in average tax-exempt securities, partly offset by a $257.2 million decrease in average interest-bearing deposits (primarily amounts held in an interest-bearing account at the Federal Reserve), and a $31.8 million decrease in average resell agreements. The average taxable-equivalent yield on interest-earning assets decreased 15 basis points from 5.26% during the three months ended September 30, 2024 to 5.11% during the three months ended September 30, 2025.

The increase in the average volume of interest-earning assets during the nine months ended September 30, 2025 was primarily related to a $1.5 billion increase in average loans, a $1.0 billion increase in average taxable securities, and a $4.6 million increase in average tax-exempt securities partly offset by a $455.0 million decrease in average interest-bearing deposits (primarily amounts held in an interest-bearing account at the Federal Reserve), and a $56.1 million decrease in average resell agreements. The average taxable-equivalent yield on interest-earning assets decreased 15 basis points from 5.21% during the nine months ended September 30, 2024 to 5.06% during the nine months ended September 30, 2025. The average taxable-equivalent yields on interest-earning assets during comparable periods were impacted by changes in market interest rates (as noted in the table above) and changes in the volumes and relative mixes of interest-earning assets.

The average taxable-equivalent yield on loans decreased 51 basis points from 7.12% during the three months ended September 30, 2024 to 6.61% during the three months ended September 30, 2025 while the average taxable-equivalent yield on loans decreased 48 basis points from 7.07% during the nine months ended September 30, 2024 to 6.59% during the nine months ended September 30, 2025. The average taxable-equivalent yields on loans during the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 were impacted by decreases in market interest rates (as noted in the table above). The average volume of loans for the three months ended September 30, 2025 increased $1.4 billion, or 6.8%, while the average volume of loans for the nine months ended September 30, 2025 increased $1.5 billion, or 7.6%, compared to the same periods in 2024. Loans made up approximately 44.2% and 44.1% of average interest-earning assets during the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025, compared to 43.6% and 42.8% during the same respective periods in 2024. The increases were primarily related to the use of available funds to originate loans.

The average taxable-equivalent yield on securities was 3.85% during the three months ended September 30, 2025, increasing 45 basis points from 3.40% during the three months ended September 30, 2024 while the average taxable-equivalent yield on securities was 3.76% during the nine months ended September 30, 2025, increasing 40 basis points from 3.36% during the nine months ended September 30, 2024. The average yield on taxable securities was 3.48% during the three months ended September 30, 2025, increasing 54 basis points from 2.94% during the same period in 2024 while the average yield on taxable

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securities was 3.42% during the nine months ended September 30, 2025, increasing 52 basis points from 2.90% during the same period in 2024. The average taxable-equivalent yield on tax-exempt securities was 4.60% during the three months ended September 30, 2025, increasing 28 basis points from 4.32% during the same period in 2024 while the average taxable-equivalent yield on tax-exempt securities was 4.48% during the nine months ended September 30, 2025, increasing 18 basis points from 4.30% during the same period in 2024.

Tax-exempt securities made up approximately 34.2% and 33.4% of total average securities during the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025, compared to 35.0% and 35.2% during the same respective periods in 2024. The average volume of total securities during the three months ended September 30, 2025 increased $1.3 billion, or 7.0%, compared to the same period in 2024 while the average volume of total securities during the nine months ended September 30, 2025 increased $1.1 billion, or 5.6%, compared to the same period in 2024. Securities made up approximately 41.7% and 41.8% of average interest-earning assets during the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025, compared to 41.0% and 41.3% during the same respective periods in 2024.

Average interest-bearing deposits (primarily amounts held in an interest-bearing account at the Federal Reserve) for the three months ended September 30, 2025 decreased $257.2 million, or 3.6%, compared to the same period in 2024 while average interest-bearing deposits (primarily amounts held in an interest-bearing account at the Federal Reserve) for the nine months ended September 30, 2025 decreased $455.0 million, or 6.3%, compared to the same period in 2024. Interest-bearing deposits (primarily amounts held in an interest-bearing account at the Federal Reserve) made up approximately 14.1% of average interest-earning assets during both the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025, compared to 15.3% and 15.7% during the same respective periods in 2024. The decreases during the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 were primarily related to the reinvestment of amounts held in an interest-bearing account at the Federal Reserve into securities and loans. The average yields on interest-bearing deposits (primarily amounts held in an interest-bearing account at the Federal Reserve) were 4.36% and 4.39% during the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025, compared to 5.32% and 5.37% during the same respective periods in 2024. The average yields on interest-bearing deposits during the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 were impacted by lower average interest rates paid on reserves held at the Federal Reserve, compared to the same periods in 2024.

The average rate paid on interest-bearing liabilities was 2.13% during the three months ended September 30, 2025, decreasing 47 basis points from 2.60% during the same period in 2024 while the average rate paid on interest-bearing liabilities was 2.13% during the nine months ended September 30, 2025, decreasing 45 basis points from 2.58% during the same period in 2024. Average deposits increased $1.3 billion, or 3.3%, during the three months ended September 30, 2025, compared to the same period in 2024 and included a $1.2 billion increase in average interest-bearing deposits and a $180.6 million increase in average non-interest-bearing deposits. Average deposits increased $1.2 billion, or 2.9%, during the nine months ended September 30, 2025, compared to the same period in 2024 and included a $1.1 billion increase in average interest-bearing deposits and a $38.0 million increase in average non-interest-bearing deposits. The ratio of average interest-bearing deposits to total average deposits was 67.1% and 67.0% during the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025, compared to 66.5% and 66.1% during the same respective periods in 2024. The average cost of deposits is primarily impacted by changes in market interest rates as well as changes in the volume and relative mix of interest-bearing deposits. The average costs of interest-bearing deposits and total deposits were 1.93% and 1.30%, respectively, during the nine months ended September 30, 2025, compared to 2.38% and 1.57%, respectively, during the same period in 2024. The average costs of deposits were impacted by decreases in the interest rates we pay on our interest-bearing deposit products as a result of decreases in market interest rates.

Our net interest spreads, which represent the difference between the average rate earned on earning assets and the average rate paid on interest-bearing liabilities, were 2.98% and 2.93% during the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025, compared to 2.66% and 2.63% during the same respective periods in 2024. Our net interest spreads, as well as our net interest margins, will be impacted by future changes in short-term and long-term interest rate levels, as well as the impact from the competitive environment, including from new financial technology competitors, and the availability of alternative investment options. A discussion of the effects of changing interest rates on net interest income is set forth in Item 3. Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk included elsewhere in this report.

Our hedging policies permit the use of various derivative financial instruments, including interest rate swaps, swaptions, caps and floors, to manage exposure to changes in interest rates. Details of our derivatives and hedging activities are set forth in Note 7 - Derivative Financial Instruments in the accompanying notes to consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this report. Information regarding the impact of fluctuations in interest rates on our derivative financial instruments is set forth in Item 3. Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk included elsewhere in this report.

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Credit Loss Expense

Credit loss expense is determined by management as the amount to be added to the allowance for credit loss accounts for various types of financial instruments including loans, securities and off-balance-sheet credit exposures after net charge-offs have been deducted to bring the allowances to a level which, in management’s best estimate, is necessary to absorb expected credit losses over the lives of the respective financial instruments. The components of credit loss expense were as follows:


	Three Months Ended September 30,				Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2025		2024		2025		2024
Credit loss expense (benefit) related to:
Loans	$	9,007	$	16,462	$	37,501	$	43,848
Off-balance-sheet credit exposures	(2,418)		2,924		(4,713)		4,975
Securities held to maturity	190		—		190		—
Total	$	6,779	$	19,386	$	32,978	$	48,823

See the section captioned “Allowance for Credit Losses” elsewhere in this discussion for further analysis of credit loss expense related to loans and off-balance-sheet credit exposures.

Non-Interest Income

Total non-interest income for the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 increased $11.9 million, or 10.5%, and increased $30.7 million, or 9.1%, respectively, compared to the same respective periods in 2024. Changes in the various components of non-interest income are discussed in more detail below.

Trust and Investment Management Fees. Trust and investment management fees increased $3.8 million, or 9.3%, for the three months ended September 30, 2025 and increased $9.9 million, or 8.2%, for the nine months ended September 30, 2025, compared to the same respective periods in 2024. Investment management fees are the most significant component of trust and investment management fees, making up approximately 81.4% of total trust and investment management fees for the first nine months of both 2025 and 2024. The increases in trust and investment management fees during the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 were primarily related to increases in investment management fees (up $2.9 million and $8.1 million, respectively) and, to a lesser extent, estate fees (up $634 thousand and $1.1 million, respectively), among other things. Investment management fees are generally based on the market value of assets within an account and are thus impacted by volatility in the equity and bond markets. The increases in investment management fees during the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 were primarily related to increases in the average values of assets maintained in accounts. The increases in the average values of assets were partly related to higher average equity valuations during 2025 relative to 2024 and growth in the number of accounts. The increase in estate fees during the nine months ended September 30, 2025 was primarily related to an increase in transaction volumes relative to 2024.

At September 30, 2025, trust assets, including both managed assets and custody assets, were primarily composed of equity securities (46.7% of assets), fixed income securities (31.5% of assets), alternative investments (8.7% of assets) and cash equivalents (7.2% of assets). The estimated fair value of these assets was $51.4 billion (including managed assets of $26.5 billion and custody assets of $24.8 billion) at September 30, 2025, compared to $51.4 billion (including managed assets of $26.2 billion and custody assets of $25.2 billion) at December 31, 2024 and $50.4 billion (including managed assets of $25.6 billion and custody assets of $24.9 billion) at September 30, 2024.

Service Charges on Deposit Accounts. Service charges on deposit accounts increased $4.0 million, or 14.7%, for the three months ended September 30, 2025 and increased $10.9 million, or 13.9%, for the nine months ended September 30, 2025, compared to the same respective periods in 2024. The increase during the three months ended September 30, 2025 was primarily related to increases in commercial service charges (up $2.1 million) and overdraft charges on consumer accounts (up $1.9 million). The increase during the nine months ended September 30, 2025, was primarily related to increases in overdraft charges on consumer and, to a lesser extent, commercial accounts (up $6.0 million and $798 thousand, respectively), and commercial service charges (up $4.7 million), partly offset by a decrease in consumer service charges (down $671 thousand).

Overdraft charges totaled $15.7 million ($12.3 million consumer and $3.4 million commercial) during the three months ended September 30, 2025, compared to $13.8 million ($10.4 million consumer and $3.4 million commercial) during the same period in 2024. Overdraft charges totaled $44.6 million ($34.4 million consumer and $10.2 million commercial) during the nine months ended September 30, 2025, compared to $37.8 million ($28.4 million consumer and $9.4 million commercial) during the same period in 2024. The increases in overdraft charges during the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 were impacted by increases in the volumes of fee assessed overdrafts relative to 2024, in part due to growth in the number of accounts.

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As more fully discussed in our 2024 Form 10-K, in December 2024, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (“CFPB”) issued a final rule, which would have been applicable to Frost Bank in October 2025, that modified or eliminated several long-standing exclusions from requirements generally applicable to consumer credit that previously exempted certain overdraft practices from such requirements and required banks to restructure many overdraft fees, overdraft lines of credit, and other overdraft practices as separate consumer credit accounts that have become subject to those requirements. In March and April 2025, the U.S. Senate and House of Representatives, respectively, each adopted a resolution that would nullify the CFPB's overdraft rule. The measure was signed by the President in May 2025.

The increases in commercial service charges during the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 were partly related to increases in billable services related to analyzed treasury management accounts combined with the effect of a lower average earnings credit rate applied to deposits maintained by treasury management customers which resulted in customers paying for more of their services through fees rather than with earnings credits applied to their deposit balances. The increases in commercial service charges were also partly related to increases in service fees on non-analyzed accounts.

Insurance Commissions and Fees . Insurance commissions and fees increased $585 thousand, or 3.94%, for the three months ended September 30, 2025 and increased $3.3 million, or 6.9%, for the nine months ended September 30, 2025, compared to the same respective periods in 2024. The increase during the three months ended September 30, 2025 was primarily due to increases in benefit plan commissions (up $380 thousand) and life insurance commissions (up $332 thousand), among other things, partly offset by a decrease in contingent commissions (down $251 thousand). The increase during the nine months ended September 30, 2025 was primarily the result of increases in benefit plan commissions (up $1.8 million) and life insurance commissions (up $930 thousand), among other things. The increases in benefit plan commissions were primarily due to premium and exposure rate increases within the existing customer base and, during the nine months ended September 30, 2025, an increase in business volume. The increases in life insurance commissions were primarily related to increases in business volumes.

Contingent income totaled $4.8 million during the nine months ended September 30, 2025 compared to $4.5 million during the nine months ended September 30, 2024. Contingent income primarily consists of amounts received from various property and casualty insurance carriers related to portfolio growth and the loss performance of insurance policies previously placed. These performance related contingent payments are seasonal in nature and are mostly received during the first quarter of each year. This performance related contingent income totaled $3.6 million during the nine months ended September 30, 2025 and $3.2 million during the nine months ended September 30, 2024. Performance related contingent income related to commercial lines insurance policies increased due to improved loss performance of commercial lines insurance policies previously placed and growth within the commercial lines portfolio. Contingent income also includes amounts received from various benefit plan insurance companies related to the volume of business generated and/or the subsequent retention of such business. This benefit plan related contingent income totaled $1.1 million during the nine months ended September 30, 2025, compared to $1.4 million during the nine months ended September 30, 2024.

Interchange and Card Transaction Fees . Interchange fees, or “swipe” fees, are charges that merchants pay to us and other card-issuing banks for processing electronic payment transactions. Interchange and card transaction fees consist of income from debit and credit card usage, point of sale income from PIN-based card transactions and ATM service fees. Interchange and card transaction fees are reported net of related network costs.

Net interchange and card transaction fees increased $119 thousand, or 2.2%, for the three months ended September 30, 2025 and increased $1.3 million, or 8.6%, for the nine months ended September 30, 2025, compared to the same respective periods in 2024. The increases were primarily due to increases in income from card transactions partly offset by increases in network costs. A comparison of gross and net interchange and card transaction fees for the reported periods is presented in the table below.


	Three Months Ended September 30,				Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2025		2024		2025		2024
Income from card transactions	$	10,876	$	10,309	$	32,037	$	29,826
ATM service fees	887		898		2,620		2,627
Gross interchange and card transaction fees	11,763		11,207		34,657		32,453
Network costs	6,216		5,779		18,089		17,200
Net interchange and card transaction fees	$	5,547	$	5,428	$	16,568	$	15,253

Federal Reserve rules applicable to financial institutions that have assets of $10 billion or more provide that the maximum permissible interchange fee for an electronic debit transaction is the sum of 21 cents per transaction and 5 basis points multiplied by the value of the transaction. An upward adjustment of no more than 1 cent to an issuer's debit card interchange fee

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is allowed if the card issuer develops and implements policies and procedures reasonably designed to achieve certain fraud-prevention standards. The Federal Reserve also has rules governing routing and exclusivity that require issuers to offer two unaffiliated networks for routing transactions on each debit or prepaid product. In August 2025, the U.S. District Court for the District of North Dakota ruled to vacate the Federal Reserve’s current interchange rules but simultaneously stayed its own vacatur pending appeal to the circuit court. The outcome of this litigation could significantly and adversely affect the fees banks can charge on debit card transactions.

In October 2023, the Federal Reserve issued a proposal under which the maximum permissible interchange fee for an electronic debit transaction would be the sum of 14.4 cents per transaction and 4 basis points multiplied by the value of the transaction. Furthermore, the fraud-prevention adjustment would increase from a maximum of 1 cent to 1.3 cents. The proposal would adopt an approach for future adjustments to the interchange fee cap, which would occur every other year based on issuer cost data gathered by the Federal Reserve from large debit card issuers. Had the proposed maximum interchange fees been in effect during the reported periods, interchange and debit card transaction fees would have been approximately 30% lower. The comment period for this proposal ended in May 2024. The extent to which any such proposed changes in permissible interchange fees will impact our future revenues is currently uncertain.

Other Charges, Commissions, and Fees . Other charges, commissions, and fees increased $1.7 million, or 12.8%, for the three months ended September 30, 2025 and increased $4.1 million, or 10.9%, for the nine months ended September 30, 2025, compared to the same respective periods in 2024. The increases during the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 were primarily related to increases in income from the placement of annuities (up $470 thousand and $1.9 million, respectively), commitment fees on unused lines of credit (up $139 thousand and $820 thousand, respectively), merchant services rebates (up $166 thousand and $455 thousand, respectively), letter of credit fees (up $441 thousand and $409 thousand, respectively), and income from the placement of mutual funds (up $301 thousand and $309 thousand, respectively), among other things.

Net Gain/Loss on Securities Transactions . During the nine months ended September 30, 2025, we sold certain available-for-sale securities with amortized costs totaling $41.2 million and realized a net loss of $14 thousand. These sales were primarily related to a municipal tender offer during the first quarter. During the nine months ended September 30, 2024, we sold certain available-for-sale securities with amortized costs totaling $145.4 million and realized a net gain of $16 thousand.

Other Non-Interest Income. Other non-interest income increased $1.7 million, or 14.4%, for the three months ended September 30, 2025 and increased $1.1 million, or 3.1%, for the nine months ended September 30, 2025, compared to the same respective periods in 2024. The increase during the three months ended September 30, 2025 was primarily related to increases in sundry and other miscellaneous income (up $1.6 million) and public finance underwriting fees (up $998 thousand), among other things, partly offset by decreases in gains on the sale of foreclosed and other assets (down $473 thousand), income from customer derivatives trading activities (down $417 thousand), among other things. The increase during the nine months ended September 30, 2025 was primarily related to increases in gains on the sale of foreclosed and other assets (up $2.1 million) and income from customer securities trading and derivatives trading activities (up $564 thousand and $370 thousand, respectively), among other things, partly offset by decreases in public finance underwriting fees (down $2.0 million). The fluctuations in public finance underwriting fees and income from customer derivative and securities trading activities during the comparable periods were primarily related to variations in transaction volumes. Gains on the sale of foreclosed and other assets during the nine months ended September 30, 2025 included a $2.5 million gain related to the sale of a foreclosed real estate property during the first quarter. Sundry and other miscellaneous income during the three months ended September 30, 2025 included $1.2 million related to the recovery of prior write-offs, among other things.

Non-Interest Expense

Total non-interest expense for the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 increased $29.1 million, or 9.0%, and increased $81.1 million, or 8.4%, respectively, compared to the same periods in 2024. Changes in the various components of non-interest expense are discussed below.

Salaries and Wages . Salaries and wages increased $12.5 million, or 8.0%, for the three months ended September 30, 2025 and increased $36.3 million, or 8.0%, for the nine months ended September 30, 2025, compared to the same respective periods in 2024. The increases in salaries and wages during the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 were primarily related to increases in salaries due to annual merit and market increases and increases in the number of employees. The increases in the number of employees were partly related to our investment in organic expansion in various markets. Salaries and wages during the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 were also impacted, to a lesser extent, by increases in incentive compensation and stock-based compensation.

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Employee Benefits . Employee benefits expense increased $5.4 million, or 18.6%, for the three months ended September 30, 2025 and increased $15.6 million, or 16.6%, for the nine months ended September 30, 2025, compared to the same respective periods in 2024. The increases during the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 were primarily related to increases in medical/dental benefits expense (up $3.7 million and $6.5 million, respectively), primarily due to an increase in expected costs; 401(k) plan expense (up $1.4 million and $6.0 million, respectively); and payroll taxes (up $350 thousand and $2.8 million, respectively).

Our defined benefit retirement and restoration plans were frozen in 2001 which has helped to reduce the volatility in retirement plan expense. We nonetheless still have funding obligations related to these plans and could recognize expense related to these plans in future years, which would be dependent on the return earned on plan assets, the level of interest rates and employee turnover. See Note 11 - Defined Benefit Plans for additional information related to our net periodic pension benefit/cost.

Net Occupancy . Net occupancy expense increased $2.2 million, or 6.7%, for the three months ended September 30, 2025 and increased $6.0 million, or 6.2%, for the nine months ended September 30, 2025, compared to the same respective periods in 2024. The increases during the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 were primarily related to increases in lease expense (up $1.2 million and $2.3 million, respectively); depreciation on buildings and leasehold improvements (together up $764 thousand and $2.2 million, respectively); and property taxes (up $654 thousand and $1.5 million, respectively), among other things. The increases in the aforementioned components of net occupancy expense were impacted, in part, by our expansion efforts.

Technology, Furniture, and Equipment. Technology, furniture, and equipment expense increased $5.7 million, or 15.1%, for the three months ended September 30, 2025 and increased $15.5 million, or 14.2%, for the nine months ended September 30, 2025, compared to the same respective periods in 2024. The increases during the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 were primarily related to increases in cloud services expense (up $3.5 million and $8.6 million, respectively), software maintenance (up $1.9 million and $4.4 million, respectively), depreciation on furniture and equipment (up $840 thousand and $2.2 million, respectively), and, during the nine months ended September 30, 2025, service contracts expense (up $734 thousand), among other things.

Deposit Insurance . Deposit insurance expense totaled $6.3 million and $20.1 million for the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025, respectively, compared to $7.2 million and $30.3 million for the three and nine months ended September 30, 2024, respectively. Deposit insurance expense during the nine months ended September 30, 2024 included $9.0 million, related to additional accruals related to a special deposit insurance assessment. Refer to our 2024 Form 10-K for additional information related to the special deposit insurance assessment. During the nine months ended September 30, 2025, we reversed approximately $1.3 million of our special deposit insurance assessment accrual based upon a decrease in expected future payments related to the special deposit insurance assessment. Excluding these special assessments from 2024 and reversals in 2025, deposit insurance expense did not significantly fluctuate during the comparable periods.

Other Non-Interest Expense . Other non-interest expense increased $4.2 million, or 6.9%, for the three months ended September 30, 2025 and increased $18.0 million, or 9.9%, for the nine months ended September 30, 2025, compared to the same respective periods in 2024. The increase during the three months ended September 30, 2025 included increases in fraud losses (up $2.8 million); advertising/promotions expense (up $516 thousand); research and platform fees (up $511 thousand); outside computer service expense (up $381 thousand); donations expense (up $362 thousand); travel, meals and entertainment (up $337 thousand) and communications expense (up $331 thousand) among other things, partly offset by decreases in professional services expense (down $977 thousand) and check card expenses (down $404 thousand), among other things. The increase during the nine months ended September 30, 2025 included increases in fraud losses (up $4.1 million); advertising/promotions expense (up $3.8 million); sundry and other miscellaneous expense (up $2.6 million), of which $1.7 million related to increased operational losses and asset write-offs; research and platform fees (up $1.6 million); donations expense (up $1.5 million), primarily related to donations to the Frost Charitable Foundation; business development expense (up $1.1 million); travel, meals and entertainment (up $1.0 million); and communications expense (up $822 thousand); among other things, partly offset by a decrease in check card expenses (down $1.3 million), among other things.

Results of Segment Operations

We are managed under a matrix organizational structure whereby our two primary operating segments, Banking and Frost Wealth Advisors, overlap a regional reporting structure. A third operating segment, Non-Banks, is for the most part the parent holding company, as well as certain other insignificant non-bank subsidiaries of the parent that, for the most part, have little or no activity. A description of each segment, the methodologies used to measure segment financial performance and summarized operating results by segment are described in Note 14 - Operating Segments in the accompanying notes to consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this report. Segment operating results are discussed in more detail below.

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Banking

Net income for the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 increased $25.5 million, or 17.9%, and increased $51.8 million, or 12.5%, respectively, compared to the same periods in 2024. The increase during the three months ended September 30, 2025 was primarily the result of a $37.1 million increase in net interest income, a $12.6 million decrease in credit loss expense, and a $6.7 million increase in non-interest income partly offset by a $26.7 million increase in non-interest expense and a $4.2 million increase in income tax expense. The increase during the nine months ended September 30, 2025 was primarily the result of a $95.3 million increase in net interest income, a $17.6 million increase in non-interest income, and a $15.8 million decrease in credit loss expense partly offset by $70.8 million increase in non-interest expense and a $6.2 million increase in income tax expense.

Net interest income for the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 increased $37.1 million, or 9.2%, and increased $95.3 million, or 8.0%, respectively, compared to the same periods in 2024. The increase during the three months ended September 30, 2025 was primarily related decreases in the average costs of interest-bearing deposit accounts and repurchase agreements combined with increases in the average yields on and volumes of taxable and, to a lesser extent, tax-exempt securities and an increase in the average volume of loans, among other things. The impact of these items was partly offset by a decrease in average yield on loans, decreases in the average yield on and volume of interest-bearing deposits (primarily amounts held in an interest-bearing account at the Federal Reserve), and increases in the average volumes of interest-bearing deposit accounts and repurchase agreements, among other things. The increase during the nine months ended September 30, 2025 was primarily related to decreases in the average costs of interest-bearing deposit accounts and repurchase agreements combined with an increase in the average volume of loans, and increases in the average yield on and volume of taxable securities, and, to a lesser extent, tax-exempt securities, among other things. The impact of these items was partly offset by a decrease in average yield on loans, decreases in the average yield on and volume of interest-bearing deposits (primarily amounts held in an interest-bearing account at the Federal Reserve), and a decrease in the average volume of resell agreements, among other things, combined with increases in the average volumes of interest-bearing deposit accounts and repurchase agreements, among other things. Net interest income for the first nine months of 2024 included an additional day as a result of leap year. See the analysis of net interest income included in the section captioned “Net Interest Income” included elsewhere in this discussion.

Credit loss expense for the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 totaled $6.8 million and $33.0 million compared to $19.4 million and $48.8 million during the same periods in 2024. See the sections captioned “Credit Loss Expense” and “Allowance for Credit Losses” elsewhere in this discussion for further analysis of credit loss expense related to loans and off-balance-sheet commitments.

Non-interest income for the three months ended September 30, 2025 increased $6.7 million, or 10.1%, compared to the same period in 2024 while non-interest income for the nine months ended September 30, 2025 increased $17.6 million, or 9.0%, compared to the same period in 2024. The increase during the three months ended September 30, 2025 was primarily related to an increase in service charges on deposit accounts, and to a lesser extent, increases in other non-interest income; insurance commissions and fees; and other charges, commissions, and fees. The increase during the nine months ended September 30, 2025 was primarily related to increases in service charges on deposit accounts; insurance commissions and fees; other charges, commissions, and fees; and interchange and card transaction fees. The increases in service charges on deposit accounts were primarily related to increases in overdraft charges on consumer and commercial accounts and commercial service charges. The increases in insurance commissions and fees were primarily the result of increases in benefit plan commissions and life insurance commissions. The increases in other charges, commissions, and fees were primarily related to increases in commitment fees on unused lines of credit, merchant services rebates, and letter of credit fees, among other things. The increase in other non-interest income during the three months ended September 30, 2025 was primarily related to increases in public finance underwriting fees, and sundry and other miscellaneous income, among other things, partly offset by decreases in gains on the sale of foreclosed and other assets, income from customer derivatives trading activities, among other things. The increase in interchange and card transaction fees during the nine months ended September 30, 2025 was primarily related to increases in income from card transactions partly offset by increases in network costs. See the analysis of these categories of non-interest income included in the section captioned “Non-Interest Income” included elsewhere in this discussion.

Non-interest expense for the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 increased $26.7 million, or 9.5%, and increased $70.8 million, or 8.4%, respectively, compared to the same periods in 2024. The increases during the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 were primarily due to increases in salaries and wages; technology, furniture, and equipment expense; other non-interest expense; employee benefits expense; and net occupancy expense. These increases were partly offset by decreases in deposit insurance expense. The increases in salaries and wages were primarily related to increases in salaries due to annual merit and market increases and increases in the number of employees. Salaries and wages were also impacted, to a lesser extent, by increases in incentive compensation and stock-based compensation. The increases in technology, furniture, and equipment expense were primarily related to increases in cloud services expense, software maintenance, depreciation on

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furniture and equipment, and, during the nine months ended September 30, 2025, an increase in service contracts expense, among other things. The increases in other non-interest expense included increases in sundry and other miscellaneous expense; fraud losses; advertising/promotions expense; donations expense (primarily related to donations to the Frost Charitable Foundation); travel, meals and entertainment; and professional services expense, among other things, partly offset by decreases in check card expenses, among other things. The increase in other non-interest expense during the nine months ended September 30, 2025 also included an increase in business development expense. The increases in employee benefits expense were primarily related increases in medical/dental benefits expense, 401(k) plan expense, and payroll taxes, among other things. The increases in net occupancy expense were primarily related to increases in depreciation on buildings and leasehold improvements; lease expense; and property taxes, among other things. The decreases in deposit insurance expense were primarily related to prior year accruals for a special deposit insurance assessment totaling $9.0 million during the nine months ended September 30, 2024 while we reversed approximately $1.3 million of this accrual during the same period in 2025 based upon a decrease in expected future payments related to the special deposit insurance assessment. See the analysis of these categories of non-interest expense included in the section captioned “Non-Interest Expense” included elsewhere in this discussion.

Frost Wealth Advisors

Net income for the three months ended September 30, 2025 increased $1.7 million, or 22.3%, compared to the same period in 2024, while net income for the nine months ended September 30, 2025 increased $1.7 million, or 6.6% compared to the same period in 2024. The increase during the three months ended September 30, 2025 was primarily the result of a $4.9 million increase in non-interest income, partly offset by a $2.7 million increase in non-interest expense, among other things. The increase in net income during the nine months ended September 30, 2025 was primarily the result of a $12.5 million increase in non-interest income, partly offset by a $10.4 million increase in non-interest expense, among other things.

Non-interest income for the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 increased $4.9 million, or 10.2%, and increased $12.5 million, or 8.7%, respectively, compared to the same periods in 2024. The increases during the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 were primarily due to increases in trust and investment management fees and other charges, commissions, and fees. The increases in trust and investment management fees were primarily related to increases in investment management fees and, to a lesser extent, estate fees, among other things. The increases in investment management fees were primarily related to increases in the average value of assets maintained in accounts. The increases in the average value of assets were partly related to higher average equity valuations during 2025 relative to 2024 and growth in the number of accounts. The increases in estate fees were primarily related to an increase in transaction volumes relative to 2024. The increases in other charges, commissions, and fees were primarily related to increases in income from the placement of annuities and income from the placement of mutual funds among other things. See the analysis of trust and investment management fees, other non-interest income and other charges, commissions, and fees included in the section captioned “Non-Interest Income” included elsewhere in this discussion.

Non-interest expense for the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 increased $2.7 million, or 6.5%, and increased $10.4 million, or 8.9%, respectively, compared to the same periods in 2024. The increase during the three months ended September 30, 2025 was primarily related to an increase in salaries and wages, and to a lesser extent, increases in employee benefits expense; technology, furniture, and equipment expense; and net occupancy expense. The increase during the nine months ended September 30, 2025 was primarily related to increases in salaries and wages; other non-interest expense; and employee benefits expense. The increases in salaries and wages were primarily due to increases in salaries, due to annual merit and market increases, and increases in incentive compensation and commissions expense. The increases in employee benefits were primarily related to increases in 401(k) plan expense, medical/dental benefits expense, and payroll taxes, among other things. The increase in technology, furniture, and equipment expense during the three months ended September 30, 2025 was related to increases in cloud services expense and software maintenance. The increase in net occupancy expense during the three months ended September 30, 2025 was related to an increase in lease expense. The increase in other non-interest expense during the nine months ended September 30, 2025 was primarily related to increases in corporate overhead expense allocations and research and platform fees, among other things, partly offset by decreases in sundry and other miscellaneous expense and professional services expense, among other things. See the analysis of these categories of non-interest expense included in the section captioned “Non-Interest Expense” included elsewhere in this discussion.

Non-Banks

The Non-Banks operating segment had net losses of $2.7 million and $10.7 million during the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025, compared to net losses of $3.4 million and $11.8 million during the same periods in 2024. The decreases in the net losses during three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 were primarily due to decreases in net interest expense due to decreases in the average rates paid on our long-term borrowings, among other things.

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Income Taxes

During the three months ended September 30, 2025, we recognized income tax expense of $33.6 million, for an effective tax rate of 16.2%, compared to $28.7 million, for an effective tax rate of 16.4%, for the same period in 2024. During the nine months ended September 30, 2025, we recognized income tax expense of $91.4 million, for an effective tax rate of 15.9%, compared to $84.3 million, for an effective tax rate of 16.5%, for the same period in 2024. The effective income tax rates differed from the U.S. statutory federal income tax rate of 21% during 2025 and 2024 primarily due to the effect of tax-exempt income from securities, loans and life insurance policies and the income tax effects associated with stock-based compensation, among other things, and their relative proportion to total pre-tax net income. The increases in income tax expense during the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 were primarily due to an increase in projected pre-tax net income. The decreases in the effective tax rate during the three and nine months ended September 30, 2025 were primarily related to increases in tax-exempt interest from securities and in tax benefits associated with stock compensation, among other things, combined with decreases in projected non-deductible deposit interest expense.

One Big Beautiful Bill Act. The One Big Beautiful Bill Act (“OBBBA”) was enacted on July 4, 2025. Among other things, the new law makes permanent certain expiring business tax provisions of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (“TCJA”). These include provisions which allow businesses to immediately expense, for tax purposes, the cost of new investments in certain qualified depreciable assets and the cost of qualified domestic research and development. The OBBBA also imposes a floor on tax deductions taken on charitable contributions. We do not expect these items to have a significant impact on our financial statements, though we expect that some minor operational changes may be necessary to support new information reporting requirements. The OBBBA also significantly changes U.S. tax law related to foreign operations and certain tax credits; however, such changes do not currently impact us.

Average Balance Sheet

Average assets totaled $51.3 billion for the nine months ended September 30, 2025 representing an increase of $2.1 billion, or 4.3%, compared to average assets for the same period in 2024. Earning assets increased $2.0 billion, or 4.4%, during the nine months ended September 30, 2025, compared to the same period in 2024. The increase in earning assets was primarily related to a $1.5 billion increase in average loans and a $1.0 billion increase in average taxable securities, partly offset by a $455.0 million decrease in average interest-bearing deposits (primarily amounts held in an interest-bearing account at the Federal Reserve), and a $56.1 million decrease in average resell agreements. Average deposits increased $1.2 billion, or 2.9%, during the nine months ended September 30, 2025, compared to the same period in 2024. The increase included a $1.1 billion increase in interest-bearing deposits and a $38.0 million increase in non-interest-bearing deposits. Average non-interest-bearing deposits made up 33.0% and 33.9% of average total deposits during the nine months ended September 30, 2025 and 2024, respectively.

Loans

Details of our loan portfolio are presented in Note 3 - Loans in the accompanying notes to consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this report. Loans increased $690.8 million, or 3.3%, from $20.8 billion at December 31, 2024 to $21.4 billion at September 30, 2025. The majority of our loan portfolio is comprised of commercial and industrial loans, energy loans, and real estate loans. Real estate loans include both commercial and consumer balances. Selected details related to our loan portfolio segments are presented below. Refer to our 2024 Form 10-K for a more detailed discussion of our loan origination and risk management processes.

Commercial and Industrial. Commercial and industrial loans increased $108.7 million, or 1.8%, from $6.1 billion at December 31, 2024 to $6.2 billion at September 30, 2025. Our commercial and industrial loans are a diverse group of loans to small, medium, and large businesses. The purpose of these loans varies from supporting seasonal working capital needs to term financing of equipment. While some short-term loans may be made on an unsecured basis, most are secured by the assets being financed with collateral margins that are consistent with our loan policy guidelines. The commercial and industrial loan portfolio also includes commercial leases and purchased shared national credits ("SNC"s).

Energy . Energy loans include loans to entities and individuals that are engaged in various energy-related activities including (i) the development and production of oil or natural gas, (ii) providing oil and gas field servicing, (iii) providing energy-related transportation services, (iv) providing equipment to support oil and gas drilling, (v) refining petrochemicals, or (vi) trading oil, gas and related commodities. Energy loans increased $124.8 million, or 11.1%, from $1.1 billion at December 31, 2024 to $1.3 billion at September 30, 2025. Energy loans are one of our largest industry concentrations totaling 5.8% of total loans at September 30, 2025, up from 5.4% of total loans at December 31, 2024. The average loan size, the significance of the portfolio and the specialized nature of the energy industry requires a highly prescriptive underwriting policy. Exceptions to this policy are rarely granted. Due to the large borrowing requirements of this customer base, the energy loan portfolio includes participations and SNCs.

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Purchased Shared National Credits. SNCs are participations purchased from upstream financial organizations and tend to be larger in size than our originated portfolio. Our purchased SNC portfolio totaled $816.2 million at September 30, 2025, decreasing $188.7 million, or 18.8%, from $1.0 billion at December 31, 2024. At September 30, 2025, 32.7% of outstanding purchased SNCs were related to the construction industry while 16.7% were related to the real estate management industry and 12.0% were related to the retail industry. The remaining purchased SNCs were diversified throughout various other industries, with no other single industry exceeding 10% of the total purchased SNC portfolio. SNC participations are originated in the normal course of business to meet the needs of our customers. As a matter of policy, we generally only participate in SNCs for companies headquartered in or which have significant operations within our market areas. In addition, we must have direct access to the company’s management, an existing banking relationship or the expectation of broadening the relationship with other banking products and services within the following 12 to 24 months. SNCs are reviewed at least quarterly for credit quality and business development successes.

Commercial Real Estate. Commercial real estate loans totaled $10.0 billion at both September 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024. Commercial real estate loans represented 74.3% and 76.3% of total real estate loans at September 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively. The majority of our commercial real estate loan portfolio consists of commercial real estate mortgages, which includes both permanent and intermediate term loans. These loans are viewed primarily as cash flow loans and secondarily as loans secured by real estate. Consequently, these loans must undergo the analysis and underwriting process of a commercial and industrial loan, as well as that of a real estate loan. At September 30, 2025, approximately half of the outstanding principal balance of our commercial real estate loans (excluding construction and land) were secured by owner-occupied properties.

Consumer Real Estate and Other Consumer Loans. The consumer real estate loan portfolio increased $366.1 million, or 11.8%, from $3.1 billion at December 31, 2024 to $3.5 billion at September 30, 2025. Combined, home equity loans and lines of credit made up 58.3% and 58.8% of the consumer real estate loan total at September 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively. We offer home equity loans up to 80% of the estimated value of the personal residence of the borrower, less the value of existing mortgages and home improvement loans. We also originate 1-4 family mortgage loans for portfolio investment purposes. Consumer and other loans increased $12.5 million, or 2.8%, from $444.5 million at December 31, 2024 to $457.0 million at September 30, 2025. The consumer and other loan portfolio primarily consists of unsecured revolving credit products, secured personal loans, motor vehicle loans, overdrafts, and other similar types of credit facilities.

Accruing Past Due Loans. Accruing past due loans are presented in the following tables. Also see Note 3 - Loans in the accompanying notes to consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this report.


			Accruing Loans 30-89 Days Past Due				Accruing Loans 90 or More Days Past Due				Total Accruing Past Due Loans
	Total Loans		Amount		Percent of Loans in Category		Amount		Percent of Loans in Category		Amount		Percent of Loans in Category
September 30, 2025
Commercial and industrial	$	6,218,271	$	33,337	0.54	%	$	3,576	0.06	%	$	36,913	0.60	%
Energy	1,253,672		15,493		1.24		—		—		15,493		1.24
Commercial real estate:
Buildings, land, and other	7,942,894		48,336		0.61		399		0.01		48,735		0.62
Construction	2,104,247		1,693		0.08		—		—		1,693		0.08
Consumer real estate	3,469,493		18,644		0.54		4,951		0.14		23,595		0.68
Consumer and other	456,997		5,999		1.31		482		0.11		6,481		1.42
Total	$	21,445,574	$	123,502	0.58		$	9,408	0.04		$	132,910	0.62
December 31, 2024
Commercial and industrial	$	6,109,532	$	36,540	0.60	%	$	7,685	0.13	%	$	44,225	0.73	%
Energy	1,128,895		4,263		0.38		—		—		4,263		0.38
Commercial real estate:
Buildings, land, and other	7,704,447		36,737		0.48		1,523		0.02		38,260		0.50
Construction	2,264,076		870		0.04		—		—		870		0.04
Consumer real estate	3,103,389		17,015		0.55		5,681		0.18		22,696		0.73
Consumer and other	444,474		6,341		1.43		822		0.18		7,163		1.61
Total	$	20,754,813	$	101,766	0.49		$	15,711	0.08		$	117,477	0.57

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Accruing past due loans at September 30, 2025 increased $15.4 million compared to December 31, 2024. The increase was primarily related to increases in past due energy loans (up $11.2 million) and past due commercial real estate - buildings, land, and other loans (up $10.5 million) partly offset by a decrease in past due commercial and industrial loans (down $7.3 million ). Accruing past due commercial real estate loans - building, land and other at September 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024 included $4.9 million and $6.2 million, respectively, related to owner occupied properties and $43.9 million and $32.1 million, respectively, related to non-owner occupied properties.

Non-Accrual Loans. Non-accrual loans are presented in the table below. Also see in Note 3 - Loans in the accompanying notes to consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this report.


	September 30, 2025							December 31, 2024
			Non-Accrual Loans							Non-Accrual Loans
	Total Loans		Amount			Percent of Loans in Category		Total Loans		Amount			Percent of Loans in Category
Commercial and industrial	$	6,218,271	$	23,264		0.37	%	$	6,109,532	$	46,004		0.75	%
Energy	1,253,672		3,523			0.28		1,128,895		4,079			0.36
Commercial real estate:
Buildings, land, and other	7,942,894		11,312			0.14		7,704,447		21,920			0.28
Construction	2,104,247		—			—		2,264,076		—			—
Consumer real estate	3,469,493		6,408			0.18		3,103,389		6,511			0.21
Consumer and other	456,997		271			0.06		444,474		352			0.08
Total	$	21,445,574	$	44,778		0.21		$	20,754,813	$	78,866		0.38
Allowance for credit losses on loans			$	280,221						$	270,151
Ratio of allowance for credit losses on loans to non-accrual loans			625.80		%					342.54		%

Non-accrual loans at September 30, 2025 decreased $34.1 million from December 31, 2024 primarily due to decreases in non-accrual commercial and industrial loans and non-accrual commercial real estate - buildings, land, and other loans. Non-accrual commercial real estate loans - building, land and other at September 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024 included $8.9 million and $19.8 million, respectively, related to owner occupied properties and $2.4 million and $2.1 million, respectively, related to non-owner occupied properties.

Generally, loans are placed on non-accrual status if principal or interest payments become 90 days past due and/or management deems the collectibility of the principal and/or interest to be in question, as well as when required by regulatory requirements. Once interest accruals are discontinued, accrued but uncollected interest is charged to current year operations. Subsequent receipts on non-accrual loans are recorded as a reduction of principal, and interest income is recorded only after principal recovery is reasonably assured. Classification of a loan as non-accrual does not preclude the ultimate collection of loan principal or interest.

There were no non-accrual loans in excess of $5.0 million at September 30, 2025. Non-accrual commercial and industrial loans included two credit relationships in excess of $5.0 million totaling $28.7 million at December 31, 2024. During the third quarter of 2025, one of these credit relationships was removed from non-accrual status due to improved credit quality while the other was sold. We recognized a net charge-off of $828 thousand in connection with the sale. Non-accrual commercial real estate loans included one credit relationship in excess of $5.0 million totaling $7.5 million at December 31, 2024. This credit relationship paid-off in 2025. Another credit relationship had an aggregate balance of $5.1 million at December 31, 2024 of which $4.6 million was included with non-accrual commercial real estate loans and $586 thousand was included with non-accrual commercial and industrial loans. This credit relationship paid off in 2025 and we recognized $329 thousand as a recovery of prior charge-offs.

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Allowance for Credit Losses

In the case of loans and securities, allowances for credit losses are contra-asset valuation accounts, calculated in accordance with Accounting Standards Codification (“ASC”) Topic 326 (“ASC 326”) Financial Instruments - Credit Losses, that are deducted from the amortized cost basis of these assets to present the net amount expected to be collected. In the case of off-balance-sheet credit exposures, the allowance for credit losses is a liability account, calculated in accordance with ASC 326, reported as a component of accrued interest payable and other liabilities in our consolidated balance sheets. The amount of each allowance account represents management's best estimate of current expected credit losses (“CECL”) on these financial instruments considering available information, from internal and external sources, relevant to assessing exposure to credit loss over the contractual term of the instrument. Relevant available information includes historical credit loss experience, current conditions, and reasonable and supportable forecasts. While historical credit loss experience provides the basis for the estimation of expected credit losses, adjustments to historical loss information may be made for differences in current portfolio-specific risk characteristics, environmental conditions, or other relevant factors. While management utilizes its best judgment and information available, the ultimate adequacy of our allowance accounts is dependent upon a variety of factors beyond our control, including the performance of our portfolios, the economy, changes in interest rates and the view of the regulatory authorities toward classification of assets. See our 2024 Form 10-K for additional information regarding our accounting policies related to credit losses.

Allowance for Credit Losses - Loans. The table below provides, as of the dates indicated, an allocation of the allowance for loan losses by loan portfolio segment; however, allocation of a portion of the allowance to one segment does not preclude its availability to absorb losses in other segments.


	Amount of Allowance Allocated		Percent of Loans in Each Category to Total Loans		Total Loans		Ratio of Allowance Allocated to Loans in Each Category
September 30, 2025
Commercial and industrial	$	96,667	29.0	%	$	6,218,271	1.55	%
Energy	8,399		5.8		1,253,672		0.67
Commercial real estate	141,015		46.9		10,047,141		1.40
Consumer real estate	23,359		16.2		3,469,493		0.67
Consumer and other	10,781		2.1		456,997		2.36
Total	$	280,221	100.0	%	$	21,445,574	1.31
December 31, 2024
Commercial and industrial	$	87,569	29.5	%	$	6,109,532	1.43	%
Energy	9,992		5.4		1,128,895		0.89
Commercial real estate	143,205		48.0		9,968,523		1.44
Consumer real estate	19,106		15.0		3,103,389		0.62
Consumer and other	10,279		2.1		444,474		2.31
Total	$	270,151	100.0	%	$	20,754,813	1.30

The allowance allocated to commercial and industrial loans totaled $96.7 million, or 1.55% of total commercial and industrial loans, at September 30, 2025 increasing $9.1 million, or 10.4%, compared to $87.6 million, or 1.43% of total commercial and industrial loans, at December 31, 2024. Modeled expected credit losses increased $6.7 million, in part due to growth within the portfolio. Qualitative factor (“Q-Factor”) and other qualitative adjustments related to commercial and industrial loans increased $10.8 million primarily due to an increases in the model overlays for the down-side scenario and credit concentrations. Specific allocations for commercial and industrial loans that were evaluated for expected credit losses on an individual basis decreased $8.3 million from $13.3 million at December 31, 2024 to $4.9 million at September 30, 2025. The decrease was primarily related to the removal of a $7.2 million specific allocation for one credit relationship that was removed from non-accrual status due to improved credit quality.

The allowance allocated to energy loans totaled $8.4 million, or 0.67% of total energy loans, at September 30, 2025 decreasing $1.6 million, or 15.9%, compared to $10.0 million, or 0.89% of total energy loans, at December 31, 2024. The decrease was primarily due to a $2.0 million decrease in specific allocations for energy loans that were evaluated for expected credit losses on an individual basis. The decrease was related to one credit relationship.

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The allowance allocated to commercial real estate loans totaled $141.0 million, or 1.40% of total commercial real estate loans, at September 30, 2025 decreasing $2.2 million, or 1.5%, compared to $143.2 million, or 1.44% of total commercial real estate loans, at December 31, 2024. The decrease was primarily related to a $1.6 million decrease in Q-factor and other qualitative adjustments (primarily related to the office building overlay) and a $1.2 million decrease in modeled expected credit losses partly offset by a $610 thousand increase in specific allocations for commercial real estate loans that were evaluated for expected credit losses on an individual basis from $625 thousand at December 31, 2024 to $1.2 million at September 30, 2025.

Additional information related to the allowance allocated to commercial real estate loans at September 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024 is included in the following table:


	Owner Occupied			Non-owner Occupied			Construction and Land			Total
September 30, 2025
Modeled expected credit losses	$	11,136		$	4,154		$	1,036		$	16,326
Q-Factor and other qualitative adjustments	31,821			50,102			41,531			123,454
Specific allocations	722			—			513			1,235
Total	$	43,679		$	54,256		$	43,080		$	141,015
Total Loans	$	3,801,002		$	3,568,906		$	2,677,233		$	10,047,141
Ratio of allowance to loans in each category	1.15		%	1.52		%	1.61		%	1.40		%
December 31, 2024
Modeled expected credit losses	$	12,579		$	4,199		$	771		$	17,549
Q-Factor and other qualitative adjustments	28,268			49,325			47,438			125,031
Specific allocations	122			—			503			625
Total	$	40,969		$	53,524		$	48,712		$	143,205
Total Loans	$	3,622,201		$	3,543,019		$	2,803,303		$	9,968,523
Ratio of allowance to loans in each category	1.13		%	1.51		%	1.74		%	1.44		%

The allowance allocated to consumer real estate loans totaled $23.4 million, or 0.67% of total consumer real estate loans, at September 30, 2025 increasing $4.3 million, or 22.3%, compared to $19.1 million, or 0.62% of total consumer real estate loans, at December 31, 2024. The increase was primarily related to an increase in modeled expected credit losses due, in part, to growth within the portfolio.

The allowance allocated to consumer loans totaled $10.8 million, or 2.36% of total consumer loans, at September 30, 2025, increasing $502 thousand, or 4.9%, compared to $10.3 million, or 2.31% of total consumer loans, at December 31, 2024. The increase was primarily related to a $1.5 million increase in the consumer overly partly offset by a $930 thousand decrease in modeled expected credit losses, in part due to a decrease in the expected loss rate associated with overdrafts.

As more fully described in our 2024 Form 10-K, we measure expected credit losses over the life of each loan utilizing a combination of models which measure probability of default and loss given default, among other things. The measurement of expected credit losses is impacted by loan/borrower attributes and certain macroeconomic variables. Models are adjusted to reflect the current impact of certain macroeconomic variables as well as their expected changes over a reasonable and supportable forecast period.

In estimating expected credit losses as of September 30, 2025, we utilized the Moody’s Analytics September 2025 Consensus Scenario (the “September 2025 Consensus Scenario”) to forecast the macroeconomic variables used in our models. The September 2025 Consensus Scenario was based on a review of a variety of surveys of baseline forecasts of the U.S. economy. The September 2025 Consensus Scenario projections included, among other things, (i) U.S. Nominal Gross Domestic Product annualized quarterly growth rate of 3.81% during the remainder of 2025 followed by average annualized quarterly growth rates of 4.51% in 2026 and 4.20% through the end of the forecast period in the third quarter of 2027; (ii) average U.S. unemployment rate of 4.41% during the remainder of 2025 followed by average annualized quarterly unemployment rates of 4.44% in 2026 and 4.30% through the end of the forecast period in the third quarter of 2027; (iii) average Texas unemployment rate of 4.22% during the remainder of 2025 followed by average annualized quarterly unemployment rates of 4.17% in 2026 and 4.09% through the end of the forecast period in the third quarter of 2027; (iv) projected average 10 year Treasury rate of 4.35% during the remainder of 2025, 4.40% during 2026 and 4.35% through the end of the forecast period in the third quarter of 2027 and (v) average oil price of $64.61 per barrel during the remainder of 2025, $61.73 per barrel in 2026, and $63.56 per barrel through the end of the forecast period in the third quarter of 2027.

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In estimating expected credit losses as of December 31, 2024, we utilized the Moody’s Analytics December 2024 Consensus Scenario (the “December 2024 Consensus Scenario”) to forecast the macroeconomic variables used in our models. The December 2024 Consensus Scenario was based on the review of a variety of surveys of baseline forecasts of the U.S. economy. The December 2024 Consensus Scenario projections included, among other things, (i) U.S. Nominal Gross Domestic Product average annualized quarterly growth rates of 3.50% in 2025 and 4.43% in 2026; (ii) average annualized U.S. unemployment rate of 4.36% during 2025 and 4.19% in 2026; (iii) average annualized Texas unemployment rate of 4.21% during 2025 and 3.99% during 2026; (iv) projected average 10 year Treasury rate of 4.23% during 2025 and 4.12% during 2026; and (v) average oil price of $70.88 per barrel during 2025 and $69.96 per barrel during 2026.

The overall loan portfolio as of September 30, 2025 increased $690.8 million, or 3.3%, compared to December 31, 2024. This increase included a $366.1 million, or 11.8%, increase in consumer real estate loans; a $124.8 million, or 11.1%, increase in energy loans; a $108.7 million, or 1.8%, increase in commercial and industrial loans; a $78.6 million, or 0.8%, increase in commercial real estate loans; and a $12.5 million, or 2.8%, increase in consumer and other loans.

The weighted average risk grade for commercial and industrial loans decreased to 6.35 at September 30, 2025 from 6.64 at December 31, 2024. The decrease was partly related to a decrease in the weighted-average risk grade of pass grade commercial and industrial loans, which decreased to 6.06 at September 30, 2025 from 6.30 at December 31, 2024. The decrease was also partly related to a $40.2 million decrease in higher-risk grade, classified commercial and industrial loans. Classified loans consist of loans having a risk grade of 11, 12 or 13. The weighted-average risk grade for energy loans increased to 5.62 at September 30, 2025 from 5.58 at December 31, 2024. The increase in the weighted-average risk grade for energy loans was due to a $3.2 million increase in energy loans graded as “special mention” (risk grade 10) and a $9.2 million increase in classified energy loans. Pass-grade energy loans increased $116.7 million while the weighted-average risk grade of such loans was 5.51 at both September 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024. The weighted average risk grade for commercial real estate loans decreased to 7.31 at September 30, 2025 from 7.35 December 31, 2024 as the impact of an increase in the weighted-average risk grade of pass grade commercial real estate loans from 7.07 at December 31, 2024 to 7.08 at September 30, 2025 was offset by the impact of a decrease in classified commercial real estate loans (down $22.8 million).

As noted above, our credit loss models utilized the economic forecasts in the Moody's September 2025 Consensus Scenario for our estimated expected credit losses as of September 30, 2025 and the Moody’s December 2024 Consensus Scenario for our estimate of expected credit losses as of December 31, 2024. We qualitatively adjusted the model results based on these scenarios for various risk factors that are not considered within our modeling processes but are nonetheless relevant in assessing the expected credit losses within our loan pools. These qualitative factor, or Q-Factor, adjustments are discussed below.

Q-Factor adjustments are based upon management's judgment and current assessment as to the impact of risks related to changes in lending policies and procedures; economic and business conditions; loan portfolio attributes and credit concentrations; and external factors, among other things, that are not already captured within the modeling inputs, assumptions and other processes. Management assesses the potential impact of such items within a range of severely negative impact to positive impact and adjusts the modeled expected credit loss by an aggregate adjustment percentage based upon the assessment. As a result of this assessment as of September 30, 2025, modeled expected credit losses were adjusted upwards by a weighted-average Q-Factor adjustment of approximately 4.0%, resulting in a $4.1 million total adjustment, compared to 4.1% at December 31, 2024, which resulted in a $3.8 million total adjustment.

We have also provided additional qualitative adjustments, or management overlays, as of September 30, 2025 as management believes there are still significant risks impacting certain categories of our loan portfolio. Q-Factor and other qualitative adjustments as of September 30, 2025 are detailed in the table below.


	Q-Factor Adjustment			Model Overlays		Office Building Overlays		Down-Side Scenario Overlay		Credit Concentration Overlays		Consumer Overlay		Total
Commercial and industrial	$	2,333		$	—	$	—	$	22,989	$	8,069	$	—	$	33,391
Energy	174			—		—		—		3,180		—		3,354
Commercial real estate:
Owner occupied	504			30,171		—		—		1,146		—		31,821
Non-owner occupied	208			34,895		14,075		—		924		—		50,102
Construction and land	52			39,071		2,032		—		376		—		41,531
Consumer real estate	767			—		—		—		—		—		767
Consumer and other	90			—		—		—		—		4,521		4,611
Total	$	4,128	4128	$	104,137	$	16,107	$	22,989	$	13,695	$	4,521	$	165,577

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Model overlays are qualitative adjustments to address the effects of risks not captured within our commercial real estate credit loss models. These adjustments are determined based upon minimum reserve ratios for our commercial real estate loans. In the case of our commercial real estate - owner occupied loan portfolio, we determined a minimum reserve ratio is appropriate to address the effect of the model's over-sensitivity to positive changes in certain economic variables. After analysis and benchmarking against peer bank data, we believe the modeled results may be overly optimistic and not appropriately capturing downside risk. As such, we determined that the appropriate forecasted loss rate for our owner-occupied commercial real estate loan portfolio should be more closely aligned with that of our commercial and industrial loan portfolio. In the case of our commercial real estate - non-owner occupied and commercial real estate - construction loan portfolios, we determined minimum reserve ratios are appropriate as we believe the modeled results are not appropriately capturing the downside risk associated with our borrowers' ability to access the capital markets for the sale or refinancing of investor real estate and assets currently under construction. We believe access to capital may be impaired for a significant amount of time. Accordingly, this would require secondary sources of liquidity and capital to support completed projects that may take considerably longer to stabilize than originally underwritten. Furthermore, most of our non-owner occupied and construction loans are originated with floating interest rates. As a result, these borrowers have been significantly impacted by the most recent cycle of rising interest rates as decreases in short-term rates have come at a slower pace. Furthermore, longer-term rates are increasing as investors demand term and risk premiums at the long end of the yield curve.

Office building overlays are qualitative adjustments to address longer-term concerns over the utilization of commercial office space which could impact the long-term performance of some types of office properties within our commercial real estate loan portfolio. These adjustments are determined based upon minimum reserve ratios for loans within our commercial real estate - non-owner occupied and commercial real estate - construction loan portfolios that have risk grades of 8 or worse.

The down-side scenario overlay is a qualitative adjustment for our commercial and industrial loan portfolio to address the significant risk of economic recession as a result of inflation; tariffs and other protectionist trade policies; rising interest rates; labor shortages; disruption in financial markets and global supply chains; further oil price volatility; and the current or anticipated impact of global wars/military conflicts, terrorism, or other geopolitical events. Factors such as these are outside of our control but nonetheless affect customer income levels and could alter anticipated customer behavior, including borrowing, repayment, investment, and deposit practices. To determine this qualitative adjustment, we use an alternative, more pessimistic economic scenario to forecast the macroeconomic variables used in our models. As of September 30, 2025, we used the Moody’s Analytics S3 Alternative Scenario Downside - 90th Percentile. In modeling expected credit losses using this scenario, we also assume each non-classified loan within our modeled loan pools is downgraded by one risk grade level. The qualitative adjustment is based upon the amount by which the alternative scenario modeling results exceed those of the primary scenario used in estimating credit loss expense, adjusted based upon management's assessment of the probability that this more pessimistic economic scenario will occur.

Credit concentration overlays are qualitative adjustments based upon statistical analysis to address relationship exposure concentrations within our loan portfolio. Variations in loan portfolio concentrations over time cause expected credit losses within our existing portfolio to differ from historical loss experience. Given that the allowance for credit losses on loans reflects expected credit losses within our loan portfolio and the fact that these expected credit losses are uncertain as to nature, timing and amount, management believes that segments with higher concentration risk are more likely to experience a high loss event. Due to the fact that a significant portion of our loan portfolio is concentrated in large credit relationships and because of large, concentrated credit losses in recent years, management made the qualitative adjustments detailed in the table above to address the risk associated with such a relationship deteriorating to a loss event.

The consumer overlay is a qualitative adjustment for our consumer and other loan portfolio to address the risk associated with the level of unsecured loans within this portfolio and other risk factors. Unsecured consumer loans have an elevated risk of loss in times of economic stress as these loans lack a secondary source of repayment in the form of hard collateral. This adjustment was determined by analyzing our consumer loan charge-off trends as well as those of the general banking industry. Management deemed it appropriate to consider an additional overlay to the modeled forecasted losses for the unsecured consumer portfolio.

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As of December 31, 2024, we provided qualitative adjustments, as detailed in the table below. Further information regarding these qualitative adjustments is provided in our 2024 Form 10-K.


	Q-Factor Adjustment		Model Overlays		Office Building Overlays		Down-Side Scenario Overlay		Credit Concentration Overlays		Consumer Overlay		Total
Commercial and industrial	$	2,067	$	—	$	—	$	13,732	$	6,836	$	—	$	22,635
Energy	159		—		—		—		3,164		—		3,323
Commercial real estate:
Owner occupied	566		26,699		—		—		1,003		—		28,268
Non-owner occupied	252		34,522		13,365		—		1,186		—		49,325
Construction	46		41,232		5,772		—		388		—		47,438
Consumer real estate	620		—		—		—		—		—		620
Consumer and other	95		—		—		—		—		3,000		3,095
Total	$	3,805	$	102,453	$	19,137	$	13,732	$	12,577	$	3,000	$	154,704

Additional information related to credit loss expense and net (charge-offs) recoveries is presented in the tables below. Also see Note 3 - Loans in the accompanying notes to consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this report.


	Credit Loss Expense (Benefit)		Net (Charge-Offs) Recoveries		Average Loans		Ratio of Annualized Net (Charge-Offs) Recoveries to Average Loans
Three months ended:
September 30, 2025
Commercial and industrial	$	2,669	$	(1,486)	$	6,204,484	(0.10)	%
Energy	(2,343)		353		1,287,431		0.11
Commercial real estate	86		6		10,117,183		—
Consumer real estate	3,115		(1,463)		3,399,070		(0.17)
Consumer and other	5,480		(3,999)		443,565		(3.58)
Total	$	9,007	$	(6,589)	$	21,451,733	(0.12)
September 30, 2024
Commercial and industrial	$	4,697	$	(2,675)	$	6,039,403	(0.18)	%
Energy	146		490		1,087,931		0.18
Commercial real estate	2,791		14		9,668,485		—
Consumer real estate	3,838		(1,893)		2,830,519		(0.27)
Consumer and other	4,990		(5,576)		457,583		(4.85)
Total	$	16,462	$	(9,640)	$	20,083,921	(0.19)

Nine months ended:
September 30, 2025
Commercial and industrial	$	17,165	$	(8,067)	$	6,118,906	(0.18)	%
Energy	(2,428)		835		1,220,374		0.09
Commercial real estate	2,439		(4,629)		10,051,961		(0.06)
Consumer real estate	7,365		(3,112)		3,273,373		(0.13)
Consumer and other	12,960		(12,458)		438,733		(3.80)
Total	$	37,501	$	(27,431)	$	21,103,347	(0.17)
September 30, 2024
Commercial and industrial	$	13,625	$	(7,055)	$	6,067,302	(0.16)	%
Energy	(6,668)		975		1,009,783		0.13
Commercial real estate	12,304		(77)		9,415,694		—
Consumer real estate	7,819		(3,705)		2,662,059		(0.19)
Consumer and other	16,768		(16,853)		463,031		(4.86)
Total	$	43,848	$	(26,715)	$	19,617,869	(0.18)

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We recorded a net credit loss expense related to loans totaling $37.5 million for the nine months ended September 30, 2025 compared to $43.8 million during the same period in 2024. Net credit loss expense/benefit for each portfolio segment reflects the amount needed to adjust the allowance for credit losses allocated to that segment to the level of expected credit losses determined under our allowance methodology after net charge-offs have been recognized. The net credit loss expense related to loans during the first nine months of 2025 primarily reflects an increase in expected credit losses associated with commercial and industrial loans primarily related to increases in modeled expected credit losses and model overlays partly offset by a decrease in specific allocations on individually assessed loans; an increase in the volume of consumer real estate loans, which resulted in an increase in modeled expected credit losses for such loans; and an increase in the level of charge-offs related to commercial real estate loans. The net credit loss expense related to loans during the first nine months of 2025 also reflects recent charge-off trends particularly related to commercial and industrial loans and consumer loans (overdrafts). In 2025, we implemented new tools and enhanced internal procedures that are designed to identify fraudulent activity more accurately and more rapidly than in the past. As a result, we began writing-off deposit accounts that were overdrawn as a result of fraudulent activity directly to fraud expense, which is included in other non-interest expense in the accompanying consolidated income statements, rather than as charge-offs through the allowance for credit losses on loans. No prior period amounts were reclassified in accordance with these new procedures as management determined such amounts were not significant to the prior financial statements.

The ratio of the allowance for credit losses on loans to total loans was 1.31% at September 30, 2025 compared to 1.30% December 31, 2024. Management believes the recorded amount of the allowance for credit losses on loans is appropriate based upon management’s best estimate of current expected credit losses within the existing portfolio of loans. Should any of the factors considered by management in making this estimate change, our estimate of current expected credit losses could also change, which could affect the level of future credit loss expense related to loans.

Allowance for Credit Losses - Off-Balance-Sheet Credit Exposures. The allowance for credit losses on off-balance-sheet credit exposures totaled $47.2 million and $51.9 million at September 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024, respectively. The level of the allowance for credit losses on off-balance-sheet credit exposures depends upon the volume of outstanding commitments, underlying risk grades, the expected utilization of available funds and forecasted economic conditions impacting our loan portfolio. The allowance for credit losses on off-balance-sheet credit exposures at December 31, 2024 was also impacted by specific allocations related to amounts available under a revolving line of credit and outstanding letters of credit for a commercial and industrial borrower that was evaluated for expected credit losses on an individual basis. The specific allocations totaled $4.3 million at December 31, 2024. We also recognized specific allocations for funded loans to this borrower $7.2 million at December 31, 2024. We recognized a net credit loss benefit related to off-balance-sheet credit exposures totaling $4.7 million during the nine months ended September 30, 2025, compared to a net credit loss expense of $5.0 million during the same period in 2024. Our policies and methodology used to estimate the allowance for credit losses on off-balance-sheet credit exposures are further described in our 2024 Form 10-K.

Capital and Liquidity

Capital . Shareholders’ equity totaled $4.5 billion at September 30, 2025 and $3.9 billion at December 31, 2024. Sources of capital during the nine months ended September 30, 2025 included net income of $482.3 million; other comprehensive income, net of tax, of $327.6 million; $13.2 million related to stock-based compensation; and $7.9 million in proceeds from stock option exercises. Uses of capital during the nine months ended September 30, 2025 included $196.3 million of dividends paid on preferred and common stock and $72.5 million of treasury stock purchases.

The accumulated other comprehensive income/loss component of shareholders’ equity totaled a net, after-tax, unrealized loss of $924.4 million at September 30, 2025, compared to a net, after-tax, unrealized loss of $1.3 billion at December 31, 2024. The decrease in the net, after-tax, unrealized loss was primarily due to a $326.9 million net, after-tax, increase in the fair value of securities available for sale.

Under the Basel III Capital Rules, we have elected to opt-out of the requirement to include most components of accumulated other comprehensive income in regulatory capital. Accordingly, amounts reported as accumulated other comprehensive income/loss do not increase or reduce regulatory capital and are not included in the calculation of our regulatory capital ratios. In connection with the adoption of ASC 326 on January 1, 2020, we also elected to exclude, for a transitional period, the effects of credit loss accounting under CECL in the calculation of our regulatory capital and regulatory capital ratios. The transitional period ended on December 31, 2024. Regulatory agencies for banks and bank holding companies utilize capital guidelines designed to measure capital and take into consideration the risk inherent in both on-balance-sheet and off-balance-sheet items. See Note 6 - Capital and Regulatory Matters in the accompanying notes to consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this report.

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Details of dividends declared and paid are presented in the table below. Our ability to declare or pay dividends on, or purchase, redeem or otherwise acquire, shares of our capital stock may be impacted by certain restrictions described in Note 6 - Capital and Regulatory Matters in the accompanying notes to consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this report.


	2025				2024
	Dividends Per Share		Dividend Payout Ratio		Dividends Per Share		Dividend Payout Ratio
1st quarter	$	0.95	41.3	%	$	0.92	44.6	%
2nd quarter	1.00		41.8		0.92		41.6
3rd quarter	1.00		37.5		0.95		42.3

Year-to-date	$	2.95	40.1		$	2.79	42.8

Stock Repurchase Plans. From time to time, our board of directors has authorized stock repurchase plans. In general, stock repurchase plans allow us to proactively manage our capital position and provide management the ability to repurchase shares of our common stock opportunistically in instances where management believes the market price undervalues our company. Such plans also provide us with the ability to repurchase shares of common stock that can be used to satisfy obligations related to stock compensation awards in order to mitigate the dilutive effect of such awards. For additional details, see Note 6 - Capital and Regulatory Matters in the accompanying notes to consolidated financial statements and Part II, Item 2 - Unregistered Sales of Equity Securities and Use of Proceeds, each included elsewhere in this report.

Liquidity . As more fully discussed in our 2024 Form 10-K, our liquidity position is continuously monitored, and adjustments are made to the balance between sources and uses of funds as deemed appropriate. Liquidity risk management is an important element in our asset/liability management process. We regularly model liquidity stress scenarios to assess potential liquidity outflows or funding problems resulting from economic disruptions, volatility in the financial markets, unexpected credit events or other significant occurrences deemed problematic by management. These scenarios are incorporated into our contingency funding plan, which provides the basis for the identification of our liquidity needs. Our principal source of funding has been our customer deposits, supplemented by our short-term and long-term borrowings as well as maturities of securities and loan amortization. As of September 30, 2025, we had approximately $7.3 billion held in an interest-bearing account at the Federal Reserve. We also have the ability to borrow funds as a member of the FHLB. As of September 30, 2025, based upon available, pledgeable collateral, our total borrowing capacity with the FHLB was approximately $6.8 billion. Furthermore, at September 30, 2025, we had approximately $12.8 billion in securities that were available to pledge and could be used to support additional borrowings, as needed, through repurchase agreements or the Federal Reserve discount window.

Since Cullen/Frost is a holding company and does not conduct operations, its primary sources of liquidity are dividends upstreamed from Frost Bank and borrowings from outside sources. Banking regulations may limit the amount of dividends that may be paid by Frost Bank. See Note 6 - Capital and Regulatory Matters in the accompanying notes to consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this report regarding such dividends. At September 30, 2025, Cullen/Frost had liquid assets, primarily consisting of cash on deposit at Frost Bank, totaling $314.0 million.

Accounting Standards Updates

See Note 16 - Accounting Standards Updates in the accompanying notes to consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this report for details of recently issued accounting pronouncements and their expected impact on our financial statements.

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Item 3. Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk

The disclosures set forth in this item are qualified by the section captioned “Forward-Looking Statements and Factors that Could Affect Future Results” included in Item 2. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations of this report and other cautionary statements set forth elsewhere in this report.

Refer to the discussion of market risks included in Item 7A. Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk in the 2024 Form 10-K. There has been no significant change in the types of market risks we face since December 31, 2024.

We utilize an earnings simulation model as the primary quantitative tool in measuring the amount of interest rate risk associated with changing market rates. The model quantifies the effects of various interest rate scenarios on projected net interest income and net income over the next 12 months. The model measures the impact on net interest income relative to a flat-rate case scenario of hypothetical fluctuations in interest rates over the next 12 months. These simulations incorporate assumptions regarding balance sheet growth and mix, pricing and the repricing and maturity characteristics of the existing and projected balance sheet. The impact of interest rate derivatives, such as interest rate swaps, caps, and floors, is also included in the model. Other interest rate-related risks such as prepayment, basis and option risk are also considered.

Our model simulations as of September 30, 2025 indicate that our projected balance sheet is slightly less asset sensitive in comparison to our balance sheet as of December 31, 2024. For modeling purposes, as of September 30, 2025, the model simulations projected that 100 and 200 basis point ratable increases in interest rates would result in positive variances in net interest income of 1.3% and 2.7%, respectively, relative to the flat-rate case over the next 12 months, while 100 and 200 basis point ratable decreases in interest rates would result in negative variances in net interest income of 1.2% and 2.8%, respectively, relative to the flat-rate case over the next 12 months. For modeling purposes, as of December 31, 2024, the model simulations projected that 100 and 200 basis point ratable increases in interest rates would result in positive variances in net interest income of 1.5% and 2.8%, respectively, relative to the flat-rate case over the next 12 months, while 100 and 200 basis point ratable decreases in interest rates would result in negative variances in net interest income of 1.1% and 2.2%, respectively, relative to the flat-rate case over the next 12 months.

We do not currently pay interest on a significant portion of our commercial demand deposits. Any interest rate that would ultimately be paid on these commercial demand deposits would likely depend upon a variety of factors, some of which are beyond our control. Our September 30, 2025 and December 31, 2024, model simulations did not assume any payment of interest on commercial demand deposits (those not already receiving an earnings credit). Management believes, based on our experience during the last interest rate cycle, that it is less likely we will pay interest on these deposits as rates increase.

As of September 30, 2025, the effects of a 200 basis point increase and a 200 basis point decrease in interest rates on our derivative holdings would not result in a significant variance in our net interest income.

The effects of hypothetical fluctuations in interest rates on our securities classified as “trading” under ASC Topic 320, “Investments—Debt and Equity Securities,” are not significant, and, as such, separate quantitative disclosure is not presented.

Item 4. Controls and Procedures

As of the end of the period covered by this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q, an evaluation was conducted by management, with the participation of its Chief Executive Officer and Chief Financial Officer, of the effectiveness of our disclosure controls and procedures (as defined in Rule 13a-15(e) under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934). Based upon that evaluation, the Chief Executive Officer and Chief Financial Officer concluded that the disclosure controls and procedures were effective as of the end of the period covered by this report. No change in our internal control over financial reporting (as defined in Rule 13a-15(f) under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934) occurred during the last fiscal quarter that materially affected, or is reasonably likely to materially affect, our internal control over financial reporting.

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Part II. Other Information

Item 1. Legal Proceedings

We are subject to various claims and legal actions that have arisen in the course of conducting business. Management does not expect the ultimate disposition of these matters to have a material adverse impact on our financial statements.

Item 1A. Risk Factors

There has been no material change in the risk factors disclosed under Item 1A. of our 2024 Form 10-K.

Item 2. Unregistered Sales of Equity Securities and Use of Proceeds

The following table provides information with respect to purchases we made or were made on our behalf or any “affiliated purchaser” (as defined in Rule 10b-18(a)(3) under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934), of our common stock during the three months ended September 30, 2025. Dollar amounts in thousands.


Period	Total Number of Shares Purchased		Average Price Paid Per Share		Total Number of Shares Purchased as Part of Publicly Announced Plan	Maximum Number of Shares (or Approximate Dollar Value) That May Yet Be Purchased Under the Plan at the End of the Period (1)
July 1, 2025 to July 31, 2025	203	(2)	$	138.74	—	$	150,000
August 1, 2025 to August 31, 2025	315,876	(2)	124.85		315,876	110,564
September 1, 2025 to September 30, 2025	233,447	(2)	127.79		233,352	80,743
Total	549,526				549,228

(1) On January 29, 2025, Cullen/Frost announced that our board of directors authorized a $ 150.0 million stock repurchase program, allowing us to repurchase shares of our common stock over a one-year period expiring on January 28, 2026.

(2) Includes repurchases made in connection with the vesting of certain stock compensation awards.

Item 3. Defaults Upon Senior Securities

None.

Item 4. Mine Safety Disclosures

None.

Item 5. Other Information

Insider Trading Policies and Procedures. Our board of directors has adopted the Cullen/Frost Bankers, Inc. Insider Trading Policy which governs the purchase, sale, and/or other dispositions of our securities by directors, officers and employees, or by Cullen/Frost itself. This policy has been reasonably designed to promote compliance with insider trading laws, rules and regulations, and applicable NYSE listing standards.

Rule 10b5-1 and Non-Rule 10b5-1 Trading Arrangements. None .

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Item 6. Exhibits

(a) Exhibits


Exhibit Number			Description
10.1			Form of Restricted Stock Unit Award Agreement - 2024 Equity Incentive Plan
10.2			Form of Performance Stock Unit Award Agreement - 2025
31.1			Rule 13a-14(a) Certification of the Corporation's Chief Executive Officer
31.2			Rule 13a-14(a) Certification of the Corporation's Chief Financial Officer
32.1 (1)			Section 1350 Certification of the Corporation's Chief Executive Officer
32.2 (1)			Section 1350 Certification of the Corporation's Chief Financial Officer
101.INS (2)			Inline XBRL Instance Document
101.SCH			Inline XBRL Taxonomy Extension Schema Document
101.CAL			Inline XBRL Taxonomy Extension Calculation Linkbase Document
101.DEF			Inline XBRL Taxonomy Extension Definition Linkbase Document
101.LAB			InlineXBRL Taxonomy Extension Label Linkbase Document
101.PRE			Inline XBRL Taxonomy Extension Presentation Linkbase Document
104 (3)			Cover Page Interactive Data File

(1) This exhibit shall not be deemed “filed” for purposes of Section 18 of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, or otherwise subject to the liability of that section, and shall not be deemed to be incorporated by reference into any filing under the Securities Act of 1933 or the Securities Exchange Act of 1934.

(2) The instance document does not appear in the interactive data file because its XBRL tags are embedded within the Inline XBRL document.

(3) Formatted as Inline XBRL and contained within the Inline XBRL Instance Document in Exhibit 101.

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Signatures

Pursuant to the requirements of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, the registrant has duly caused this report to be signed on its behalf by the undersigned thereunto duly authorized.

Cullen/Frost Bankers, Inc.

(Registrant)

Date:

October 30, 2025

By:

/s/ Daniel J. Geddes

Daniel J. Geddes

Group Executive Vice President

and Chief Financial Officer

(Principal Financial Officer)

Date:

October 30, 2025

By:

/s/ Matthew B. Henson

Matthew B. Henson

Executive Vice President

and Chief Accounting Officer

(Principal Accounting Officer)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Part I. Financial Information Item 1. Financial Statements (unaudited)Note 1 - Significant Accounting Policies Note 2 - Securities Note 3 - Loans Note 4 - Deposits Note 5 - Off-balance-sheet Arrangements, Commitments, Guarantees and Contingencies Note 6 - Capital and Regulatory Matters Note 7 - Derivative Financial Instruments Note 8 - Balance Sheet Offsetting and Repurchase Agreements Note 9 - Stock-based Compensation Note 10 - Earnings Per Common Share Note 11 - Defined Benefit Plans Note 12 - Income Taxes Note 13 - Other Comprehensive Income (loss)Note 14 Operating Segments Note 15 Fair Value Measurements Note 16 - Accounting Standards Updates Item 2. Management S Discussion and Analysis Of Financial Condition and Results Of Operations Item 3. Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk Item 4. Controls and Procedures Part II. Other Information Item 1. Legal Proceedings Item 1A. Risk Factors Item 2. Unregistered Sales Of Equity Securities and Use Of Proceeds Item 3. Defaults Upon Senior Securities Item 4. Mine Safety Disclosures Item 5. Other Information Item 6. Exhibits

Exhibits

10.1 Form of Restricted Stock Unit Award Agreement - 2024 Equity Incentive Plan 10.2 Form of Performance Stock Unit Award Agreement - 2025 31.1 Rule 13a-14(a) Certification of the Corporation's Chief Executive Officer 31.2 Rule 13a-14(a) Certification of the Corporation's Chief Financial Officer 32.1(1) Section 1350 Certification of the Corporation's Chief Executive Officer 32.2(1) Section 1350 Certification of the Corporation's Chief Financial Officer

CFR 10-Q Quarter ended Sept. 30, 2025

Exhibits